Anton Grigoryevich Rubinstein (Russian: Антон Григорьевич Рубинштейн; 28 November [O.S. 16 November] 1829 – 20 November [O.S. 8 November] 1894) was a Russian pianist, composer, and conductor. He founded the Saint Petersburg Conservatory, a school for music. He was the older brother of Nikolai Rubinstein, who founded the Moscow Conservatory.

As a pianist, Rubinstein was one of the most skilled musicians of the 19th century. He became famous for a series of concerts called historical recitals. These were seven large, connected performances that showed the history of piano music. Rubinstein performed these concerts across Russia, Eastern Europe, and the United States during his tours.

Although he is best known as a pianist and teacher (he taught the composer Tchaikovsky), Rubinstein also wrote many musical pieces. He composed 20 operas, with The Demon being the most famous. He also wrote five piano concertos, six symphonies, and many solo piano pieces. Additionally, he created many works for small groups of musicians.

In 1865, Rubinstein married Vera de Tschikouanov, a maid of honor at the Russian court. She had three children with him.

Early life and education

Rubinstein was born to Jewish parents in the village of Vikhvatinets in the Podolia Governorate, Russian Empire (now known as Ofatinți in Transnistria, Republic of Moldova), on the Dniestr River, about 150 kilometers (93 miles) northwest of Odessa. His sister, Sofia, was a chamber singer and teacher. Before he was 5 years old, his paternal grandfather ordered all members of the Rubinstein family to change their religion from Judaism to Russian Orthodoxy. Although he was raised as a Christian, Rubinstein later became an atheist.

Russians call me German, Germans call me Russian, Jews call me a Christian, Christians call me a Jew. Pianists call me a composer, composers call me a pianist. The classicists think me a futurist, and the futurists call me a reactionary. My conclusion is that I am neither fish nor fowl—a pitiful individual.

Rubinstein’s father opened a pencil factory in Moscow. His mother, a skilled musician, began giving him piano lessons at age five. Later, the teacher Alexander Villoing heard Rubinstein play and accepted him as a non-paying student. Rubinstein made his first public appearance at a charity benefit concert when he was nine years old. Later that year, Rubinstein’s mother sent him, accompanied by Villoing, to Paris, where he tried but was not accepted into the Paris Conservatoire.

Rubinstein and Villoing stayed in Paris for a year. In December 1840, Rubinstein performed at the Salle Érard for an audience that included Frédéric Chopin and Franz Liszt. Chopin invited Rubinstein to his studio and played for him. Liszt advised Villoing to take Rubinstein to Germany to study composition. However, Villoing took Rubinstein on an extended concert tour of Europe and Western Russia. They returned to Moscow in June 1843. Determined to raise money to support the musical careers of both Anton and his younger brother Nikolai, their mother sent Rubinstein and Villoing on a tour of Russia. Afterward, the brothers were sent to Saint Petersburg to perform for Tsar Nicholas I and the Imperial family at the Winter Palace. Anton was 14 years old; Nikolai was eight.

Travel and performance

In spring 1844, Rubinstein, Nikolai, his mother, and his sister Luba traveled to Berlin. There, he met and received support from Felix Mendelssohn and Giacomo Meyerbeer. Mendelssohn, who had heard Rubinstein perform during a tour with Villoing, believed Rubinstein did not need more piano lessons but sent him to Theodor Kullak for training. Meyerbeer advised both boys to study composition and theory with Siegfried Dehn.

In the summer of 1846, news arrived that Rubinstein’s father was very sick. Rubinstein remained in Berlin while his mother, sister, and brother returned to Russia. At first, he continued studying with Dehn, then with Adolf Bernhard Marx, while working on compositions. At 17, he realized he could no longer be seen as a child prodigy. He traveled to Vienna to meet Franz Liszt, hoping Liszt would accept him as a student. After Rubinstein performed, Liszt reportedly said, “A talented person must achieve their goals through their own efforts.” At this time, Rubinstein was living in extreme poverty. Liszt did not help him, and other attempts to find financial support failed. After a year in Vienna and a tour of Hungary, Rubinstein returned to Berlin and continued teaching.

The Revolution of 1848 forced Rubinstein to return to Russia. For the next five years, he lived mainly in Saint Petersburg, where he taught, gave concerts, and performed at the Imperial court. The Grand Duchess Elena Pavlovna, sister-in-law to Tsar Nicholas I, became his most important supporter. By 1852, Rubinstein had become a key figure in Saint Petersburg’s music scene, performing as a soloist and working with top musicians.

Rubinstein also composed many works. After some delays, including problems with government officials who reviewed his music, his first opera, Dmitry Donskoy (now lost except for the overture), was performed at the Bolshoy Theater in Saint Petersburg in 1852. Three one-act operas for Elena Pavlovna followed. He also played and conducted several of his works, including the Ocean Symphony in its original four-movement form, his Second Piano Concerto, and other solo pieces. His lack of success in Russian opera led him to consider returning to Europe to build his reputation as a serious artist.

In 1854, Rubinstein began a four-year concert tour of Europe. This was his first major tour in a decade. At 24, he felt ready to present himself as a fully developed pianist and composer. He quickly regained his reputation as a virtuoso. In 1855, Ignaz Moscheles wrote that Rubinstein was “inferior to no one” in power and skill.

At the time, Rubinstein often played his own compositions. During several concerts, he alternated between conducting his orchestral works and performing as a soloist in his piano concertos. A highlight was leading the Leipzig Gewandhaus orchestra in his Ocean Symphony on 16 November 1854. While reviews of his music were mixed, they were more positive when he performed solo recitals later that year.

Rubinstein spent part of the winter of 1856–57 with Elena Pavlovna and the Imperial royal family in Nice. He discussed plans to improve music education in Russia with her. These discussions led to the founding of the Russian Musical Society (RMS) in 1859.

The Saint Petersburg Conservatory, the first music school in Russia and a result of the RMS, opened in 1862. Rubinstein founded it, served as its first director, and recruited talented teachers for its faculty.

Some people in Russia were surprised that a Russian music school would focus on Russian traditions. When Rubinstein said classes would be taught in Russian, one “fashionable lady” exclaimed, “What, music in Russian! That is an original idea!” Rubinstein added,

There were also those who feared the school would not be Russian enough. Rubinstein faced criticism from the Russian nationalist group known as The Five. Mikhail Tsetlin wrote in his book about The Five,

During this time, Rubinstein achieved his greatest success as a composer. His Fourth Piano Concerto (1864) and opera The Demon (1871) were major works. Between these, he composed Don Quixote, which Tchaikovsky found “interesting and well done,” though “episodic,” and the opera Ivan IV Grozniy, which was premiered by Balakirev. Borodin commented on Ivan IV that “the music is good, you just cannot recognize that it is Rubinstein. There is nothing that is Mendelssohnian, nothing as he used to write formerly.”

By 1867, ongoing conflicts with the Balakirev group and related issues caused disagreements among Conservatory faculty. Rubinstein resigned and returned to touring Europe. Unlike before, he began playing more works by other composers. Previously, he had focused on his own music.

At the request of the Steinway & Sons piano company, Rubinstein toured the United States during the 1872–73 season. Steinway’s contract required him to give 200 concerts at a rate of $200 per concert (paid in gold—Rubinstein distrusted U.S. banks and paper money), plus all expenses covered. Rubinstein stayed in America for 239 days, giving 215 concerts—sometimes two or three a day in multiple cities.

Rubinstein wrote about his American experience,

Despite his difficulties, Rubinstein earned enough money from his tour to ensure financial security for the rest of his life. After returning to Russia, he quickly invested in real estate, purchasing a dacha in Peterhof near Saint Petersburg for his family.

Rubinstein continued touring as a pianist and conducting. In 1887, he returned to the Saint Petersburg Conservatory to improve standards. He removed underperforming students, fired or demoted professors, raised entrance and exam requirements, and revised the curriculum. He led classes on keyboard literature and gave personal coaching to gifted students. During the 1889–90 academic year, he gave weekly lecture-rec

Pianism

Many people at the time believed that Rubinstein looked very similar to Ludwig van Beethoven. Ignaz Moscheles, who had known Beethoven well, wrote, "Rubinstein's face and short, energetic hair reminded me of Beethoven." Liszt called Rubinstein "Van II." This resemblance was also noticed in Rubinstein's piano playing. When he played, the piano was said to produce powerful, explosive sounds. Audience members wrote that after one of his performances, they felt physically exhausted, as if they had witnessed something powerful and natural.

Sometimes, Rubinstein's playing was too intense for some listeners. American pianist Amy Fay, who wrote about European classical music, said that while Rubinstein "has a huge spirit and is very poetic and original… for an entire evening, he is too much. Give me Rubinstein for a few pieces, but Tausig for a whole evening." She heard Rubinstein play a piece by Schubert, reportedly the Wanderer Fantasie. The performance caused her such a strong headache that she could not enjoy the rest of the concert.

Clara Schumann was especially critical. After hearing Rubinstein play the Mendelssohn C minor Trio in 1857, she wrote that "he played it so quickly that I did not know how to control myself… and often he played so loudly that I could not hear the violin or cello." She later wrote in her diary that she was angry after a concert in Breslau, where Rubinstein's playing was either extremely loud or very quiet. She noted that the audience seemed to accept this style of performance.

However, when Rubinstein played Beethoven's "Archduke" Trio with violinist Leopold Auer and cellist Alfredo Piatti in 1868, Auer recalled that the performance was impressive. Violinist Henri Vieuxtemps also praised Rubinstein's playing.

In 1884, Viennese critic Eduard Hanslick wrote that Rubinstein's recitals were too long, but he admitted that the emotional power of Rubinstein's playing pleased listeners. Hanslick said that both Rubinstein's strengths and weaknesses came from his natural energy and freshness. He wrote, "Yes, he plays like a god, and we do not mind if, sometimes, he changes, like Jupiter, into a bull."

Matvey Pressman, a fellow piano student of Sergei Rachmaninoff, also noted Rubinstein's abilities. Rubinstein was skilled at improvisation, a practice Beethoven had mastered. Composer Karl Goldmark wrote about a recital where Rubinstein improvised using a theme from Beethoven's Eighth Symphony.

Rubinstein's teacher, Villoing, helped him improve his hand position and finger movement. From watching Liszt, Rubinstein learned to move his arms freely. Theodor Leschetizky, a piano teacher in Saint Petersburg, compared muscular relaxation at the piano to a singer's deep breathing. He noted that Rubinstein took deep breaths at the start of long musical phrases and used dramatic pauses.

In his book The Great Pianists, critic Harold C. Schonberg described Rubinstein's playing as having "extraordinary breadth, strength, and vitality, immense sound and technical skill, though technical mistakes sometimes occurred." Rubinstein admitted after a concert in Berlin in 1875 that if he could collect all the wrong notes he played, he could give another concert with them.

Part of the issue might have been Rubinstein's large hands. Many people noticed how big they were. Josef Hofmann said Rubinstein's fifth finger was as thick as his own thumb, and his fingers were wide at the ends. Pianist Josef Lhévinne described them as "fat and round… with fingers so wide at the tips that he sometimes hit two keys at once." Ludwig Deppe, a German piano teacher, advised Amy Fay to watch how Rubinstein played chords: "He spread his hands as if he were taking in the universe, with great freedom and energy."

Because of the occasional mistakes in his playing, some more formal, technically precise musicians questioned Rubinstein's greatness. However, those who valued musical expression as much as technique praised him. Hans von Bülow called Rubinstein "the Michelangelo of music," and Ludwig Rellstab called him "the Hercules of the piano; the Jupiter Tonans of the instrument."

Matvey Pressman noted that Rubinstein's playing had a rich, deep tone. He said the piano sounded like an entire orchestra, not just in loudness but in the variety of sounds. Rubinstein's tone was described as "the most sensuous of any great pianists" by Schonberg. Pianist Rafael Joseffy compared it to "a golden French horn." Rubinstein once told an interviewer, "Strength with lightness is one secret of my touch… I have spent hours trying to copy the sound of Rubini's voice in my playing."

Rubinstein taught young Rachmaninoff how to achieve this tone. He said, "Press upon the keys until the blood oozes from your fingertips." When he wanted to, Rubinstein could play with lightness and grace, but he rarely did so. He learned that audiences expected powerful performances, so he provided them. His strong style made a big impression during his American tour, where such playing had never been heard before. During this tour, Rubinstein received more press attention than any other figure until Ignacy Jan Paderewski appeared a generation later.

Rubinstein's concert programs were often very long. Hanslick wrote in 1884 that Rubinstein played over 20 pieces in one concert in Vienna, including three sonatas. Rubinstein had a very strong constitution and never seemed to tire. Audiences seemed to energize him, making him act like a superhuman. He had a vast repertoire and an excellent memory until he turned 50, when he began to forget pieces and had to use sheet music.

Rubinstein was most famous for his series of historical recitals—seven concerts covering the history of piano music. Each program was enormous. The second concert focused on Beethoven sonatas, including the Moonlight, Tempest, Waldstein, Appassionata, E minor, A major (Op. 101), E major (Op. 109), and C minor (Op. 111). The fourth concert was devoted to Schumann, featuring the Fantasy in C, Kreisleriana, Symphonic Studies, Sonata in F sharp minor, short pieces, and Carnaval. This did not include encores, which Rubinstein often performed at every concert.

Rubinstein concluded his American tour with this series, playing the seven recitals over nine days in New York City in May 1873. He also performed these historical recitals in Russia and throughout Eastern Europe. In Moscow, he gave the series on consecutive Tuesday evenings in the Hall of the Nobility, repeating each concert the next morning.

Conducting

Rubinstein led the programs of the Russian Musical Society from the organization's start in 1859 until he left his position with the society and the Saint Petersburg Conservatory in 1867. He also performed as a guest conductor before and after his time with the Russian Musical Society. When Rubinstein conducted, he was known for being emotional and unpredictable, which caused different responses from both orchestra members and audience members.

Teacher

As a composition teacher, Rubinstein was able to inspire his students and was known for being generous with his time and effort, even after working long hours on administrative tasks. He was also demanding and expected his students to meet high standards, just as he did himself. According to one of Tchaikovsky's classmates, Alexandr Rubets, Rubinstein sometimes began class by reading poetry aloud and then assigned students to compose music for either a solo singer or a group, depending on the student's choice. These compositions were due the next day. At other times, he required students to create short musical pieces, such as minuets, rondos, polonaises, or other forms, by improvising.

Rubinstein repeatedly warned his students to avoid being too timid and to keep working on a composition even if they found a part difficult, rather than stopping. He also encouraged them to write down their ideas in sketches, including notes about the structure of the piece, and to avoid composing directly at the piano. Notable students who studied under him included pianists Leopold Winkler, Josef Hofmann, and Sandra Drouker.

Composition

By 1850, Rubinstein decided he wanted to be known not only as a pianist but also as a composer who wrote and performed his own symphonies, concertos, operas, trios, and other works. Rubinstein was a very productive composer, creating at least twenty operas, including The Demon (inspired by a poem by Lermontov) and The Merchant Kalashnikov. He also wrote five piano concertos, six symphonies, many solo piano pieces, and a large number of works for small ensembles. Additionally, he composed two cello concertos, one violin concerto, orchestral pieces, and tone poems, such as Don Quixote. Edward Garden wrote in The New Grove:

Rubinstein and Mikhail Glinka, who was the first important Russian classical composer, both studied in Berlin with teacher Siegfried Dehn. Glinka, who studied with Dehn 12 years before Rubinstein, used his time in Berlin to develop strong musical skills that helped shape Russian music. Rubinstein, however, focused on the styles taught by Dehn, which were more influenced by German traditions. Robert Schumann and Felix Mendelssohn had the greatest impact on Rubinstein’s music.

Because of this, Rubinstein’s music does not show the national themes found in the works of The Five. He also often rushed when composing, which led to some good ideas, like those in his Ocean Symphony, being developed in less effective ways. Paderewski later noted, “Rubinstein lacked the patience needed for a composer. He often used overused dramatic phrases during important moments, which were followed by long, rising musical sections. These sections later influenced Tchaikovsky in some of his less successful works.” However, Rubinstein’s Fourth Piano Concerto was well-received.

After Rubinstein’s death, his music became less popular, though his piano concertos remained performed in Europe until World War I. His most important works are still occasionally played in Russian concerts. Rubinstein’s music, while not very unique, struggled to compete with the classical masters or the modern Russian styles of Stravinsky and Prokofiev.

In recent years, Rubinstein’s music has been performed more often in Russia and abroad, often receiving positive reviews. Some of his most well-known works include the opera The Demon, his Piano Concerto No. 4, and his Symphony No. 2, called The Ocean.

Rubinstein's repartee

Rubinstein was known during his lifetime for his sharp sense of humor and his deep understanding of music. During one of his visits to Paris, a French pianist named Alfred Cortot played the first part of Beethoven's Appassionata for him. After a long pause, Rubinstein told Cortot, "My boy, never forget what I am about to say. Beethoven's music should not be studied. It must be brought back to life." Cortot reportedly remembered these words for the rest of his life.

Rubinstein held his piano students to high standards. He wanted them to think carefully about the music they played, making sure their tone and style matched the piece and its phrases. His teaching style mixed strong, sometimes harsh criticism with moments of humor. A student named Hofmann described one of these lessons:

Rubinstein's strict requirement to follow the written notes exactly surprised Hofmann, as he had heard Rubinstein take creative liberties during his own performances. When Hofmann asked Rubinstein to explain this difference, Rubinstein replied, as many teachers have done before, "When you are as old as I am, you may do as I do." He then added, "If you can."

Rubinstein did not change his direct speaking style even when addressing people of high importance. After Rubinstein returned to lead the Saint Petersburg Conservatory, Tsar Alexander III gave the old, run-down Bolshoi Theater as the Conservatory's new home—but without the money needed to fix it. At a party held in the Tsar's honor, the monarch asked Rubinstein if he was happy with this gift. Rubinstein answered clearly, to the shock of the crowd, "Your Imperial Majesty, if I gave you a beautiful cannon, all decorated and ready, but with no bullets, would you be pleased?"

Rubinstein's voice

This recording was made in Moscow in January 1890 by Julius Block (1858–1934) for Thomas Edison. Rubinstein is heard to make a praising comment about the phonograph recorder.