The guqin (pronounced [kùtɕʰǐn]; Chinese: 古琴) is a seven-string Chinese musical instrument that is played by plucking its strings. It has been used for many years and was especially valued by scholars and educated people for its delicate and elegant sound. A famous saying about the guqin is, "A gentleman does not part with his qin or se without good reason." It is also connected to Confucius, an important ancient Chinese philosopher. The guqin is sometimes called "the father of Chinese music" or "the instrument of the sages." It should not be confused with the guzheng, another Chinese instrument with long strings and moveable bridges under each string.

In the past, the instrument was simply called "qin" (琴). However, by the 20th century, the word "qin" was also used for other instruments, such as the yangqin (a hammered dulcimer), the huqin family (bowed string instruments), and the Western piano (gangqin) and violin (xiaotiqin). To avoid confusion, the prefix "gu-" (古, meaning "ancient") was later added, making the instrument's name "guqin." It can also be called "qixian-qin" (七絃琴), which means "seven-stringed qin." The guqin is sometimes incorrectly called a lute because of a book written by Robert Hans van Gulik, titled The Lore of the Chinese Lute. Other incorrect names, often found on music recordings, include "harp" or "table-harp."

The guqin is a quiet instrument with a range of about four octaves. Its open strings are tuned to low pitches, with the lowest note about two octaves below middle C, similar to the lowest note on a cello. Sounds are made by plucking open strings, stopped strings, or using harmonics. Sliding tones, called glissando, create sounds similar to those of a pizzicato cello, a fretless double bass, or a slide guitar. The guqin has 13 "hui," which are markers on the strings that help players find positions to produce different notes. Pressing these markers changes the pitch. The instrument can also produce many harmonics, with 91 being most commonly used. Traditionally, the guqin had five strings, which represented five notes in the ancient Chinese music system. However, older instruments with one or more strings have also been found. The modern guqin has seven strings.

More than 3,360 pieces of guqin music from ancient and imperial times are known to exist. On November 7, 2003, UNESCO recognized the guqin as an Intangible World Cultural Heritage. In 2006, it was added to China's National List of Non-Material Cultural Heritage. In 2010, a guqin from the Song dynasty was sold for $22 million, making it the most expensive musical instrument ever sold.

History

The qin, a highly respected Chinese musical instrument, is said to have a history of about 5,000 years. Ancient Chinese stories claim that legendary figures from long ago, such as Fuxi, Shennong, and Huang Di, the "Yellow Emperor," played a role in its creation. Many old books and music collections from before the 20th century mention this as the qin's true origin, though modern scholars often view these claims as myths. The qin is mentioned in Chinese writings from nearly 3,000 years ago, and examples of the instrument have been found in tombs dating back about 2,500 years. Today, experts continue to debate its exact origins.

In 1977, a recording of "Flowing Water" (Liu Shui), performed by Guan Pinghu, a famous 20th-century qin player, was included on the Voyager Golden Record. This gold-plated record, sent into space by NASA on the Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 spacecraft, features music from around the world. "Flowing Water" is the second-longest piece on the disc. The qin was chosen because its sound and musical scale are based on natural laws related to how sound waves and vibrations behave, showing human understanding of these principles. In 2003, guqin music was named one of the Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity by UNESCO.

Schools, societies and players

Like other musical traditions, differences exist in how people share and value ideas. These differences led to the creation of groups and schools that teach and preserve various styles and traditions.

Over time, many guqin schools, called qin pai, formed in places where guqin playing was most common. Some schools no longer exist, while others have branches, such as the Mei’an school, which came from the Zhucheng school. Many schools began with one person, like the Wu school, named after Wu Zhaoji. Styles between schools can be very similar or very different, often due to how music is interpreted. Northern schools usually use more energetic techniques than Southern schools. However, today, the lines between schools and styles are less clear because players often learn from many different teachers. Conservatory-trained players, in particular, may combine styles from multiple schools. Even within the same school, students may develop different styles, such as Zhang Ziqian and Liu Shaochun of the Guangling school.

Qin schools and qin societies have different purposes. Schools focus on teaching and passing down specific styles, while societies focus on performance and sharing music. Qin societies organize meetings, called yaji (雅集, or "elegant gatherings"), where players perform and discuss the guqin. These gatherings happen monthly or every few months. Societies may also visit scenic places to play, attend conferences, or join competitions and research projects. They do not require strict rules and often operate in a relaxed way. The main goal of societies is to promote guqin music, provide learning opportunities, and connect players.

Many people throughout history played the guqin, and it was especially loved by scholars. Some melodies are linked to famous figures, such as Confucius and Qu Yuan. Emperors, like Song Huizong, also enjoyed the guqin, as shown in his painting "Ting Qin Tu," where he is depicted playing the instrument.

• Confucius: Philosopher (551–479 BCE), associated with the pieces Kongzi Duyi, Weibian Sanjue, and Youlan.
• Bo Ya: Qin player from the Spring and Autumn period, associated with Gao Shan and Liu Shui.
• Zhuang Zi: Daoist philosopher (Warring States period), associated with Zhuang Zhou Mengdie and Shenhua Yin.
• Qu Yuan (340–278 BCE): Poet (Warring States period), associated with Li Sao.
• Cai Yong: Han dynasty musician, traditionally credited with writing Qin Cao.
• Cai Wenji: Cai Yong’s daughter, associated with Hujia Shiba-pai.
• Sima Xiangru: Han dynasty poet (179–117 BCE).
• Zhuge Liang (181–234): Chinese military leader of the Three Kingdoms, known for calmly playing the guqin while defending his fort.
• Ji Kang: One of the Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove, musician and poet, author of Qin Fu.
• Li Bai: Tang dynasty poet (701–762).
• Bai Juyi: Tang dynasty poet (772–846).
• Song Huizong: Song dynasty emperor who supported the arts and had a "10,000 Qin Hall" in his palace.
• Guo Chuwang: Patriot from the end of the Song dynasty, composer of Xiaoxiang Shuiyun.

Classical collections like Qin Shi, Qinshi Bu, and Qinshi Xu include stories of hundreds more guqin players.

Today, guqin players range from the early 20th century to the present. Unlike in the past, many modern players have careers outside of music. Only a few are paid to focus solely on playing and studying the guqin. Some players are also skilled in other arts or conduct independent music research. Others may play other instruments and give performances or lectures.

Performance

During the performance of the qin, musicians use many techniques to fully express the instrument's sound. Special written instructions called tablatures were created over centuries to help players learn and choose from a collection of old and popular songs.

The qin's sounds can be divided into three types. The first is called san yin ("unfettered sound"), which is the basic tone made by plucking a string with the right hand. The second type, fan yin ("floating sound"), is created by plucking a string with the right hand and gently tapping it with the left hand at specific spots. This produces a clear, high-pitched sound similar to string harmonics in Western music. The qin has 13 special markers called hui (made of mica or seashell) placed along the strings. These markers help players create fan yin by tapping at exact points. The third type is an yin ("pressed sound"), which is also called shi yin ("full sound") or zou yin ("changing sound"). To play this, the left hand presses the string at a certain spot, the right hand plucks it, and the left hand may slide up or down to change the pitch. This technique is like playing a slide guitar but is much more complex than guitar playing. According to a book, there are about 1,070 different finger techniques for the qin, making it one of the most technically diverse instruments in the world. Many of these techniques are no longer used, but about 50 are still used today. Sometimes, the qin is played with a violin bow, producing a sound similar to a cello but with a rougher tone.

Some common techniques include tiao (pick), gou (hook), bo (split), and bo (strike). These terms come from an old handbook.

Written qin music does not directly show the notes played. Instead, it uses tablatures that describe how to tune the instrument, where to place fingers, and which techniques to use. These instructions guide players step by step. Some tablatures also use the gongche system to show notes or dots to indicate rhythm. The earliest modern shorthand tablature dates to the 12th century. An older form from the Tang dynasty, called Jieshi Diao Youlan, survives in a single manuscript from the 7th century. This used a longhand system called wenzi pu (written notation), created during the Warring States period. Later, in the Tang dynasty, the notation was simplified into jianzi pu (reduced notation), where one character could represent a single note or up to nine notes. This system became widely used and led to many collections of qin music, such as Shenqi Mipu (The Mysterious and Marvellous Tablature) from the Ming dynasty. In the 1960s, over 130 qin tablature collections were discovered, containing more than 3,360 pieces of music. However, many older collections have been lost, and some pieces have not been played for centuries.

Most qin pieces are 3 to 8 minutes long, with the longest piece, Guangling San, lasting 22 minutes. Other famous pieces include Liu Shui (Flowing Water), Yangguan San Die (Three Refrains on the Yang Pass Theme), Meihua San Nong (Three Variations on the Plum Blossom Theme), Xiao Xiang Shui Yun (Mist and Clouds over the Xiao and Xiang Rivers), and Pingsha Luo Yan (Wild Geese Descending on the Sandbank). A typical player learns about 10 pieces well and adds new ones as they wish. They often use recordings to help learn. Skilled players may also compose or improvise music, but this requires deep knowledge of the qin. Some qin melodies describe scenes from nature.

Dapu is the process of converting old tablature into a playable form. Since tablature does not show note values, tempo, or rhythm, players must figure these out themselves. Traditionally, students learned rhythm from a teacher by watching and copying them. Tablature was only used if the teacher was unsure. Because of this, many old tablatures do not include rhythm. However, by the late Qing dynasty, some tablatures began using dots to indicate rhythm. Without a teacher, players had to guess the rhythm themselves. Despite this, qin music has rhythm and melody, even if it is not clearly written. In the 20th century, some tried to replace jianzi pu with staff notation, but this has not succeeded. Today, staff notation is often printed alongside qin tablature to help players.

There is a saying that "a short piece takes three months to learn, and a long piece takes three years." While this is not always true, it shows how much time is needed to master a piece. Players must memorize the music, correct their finger placement, rhythm, and timing, and then add emotion to the performance. This process can take months or years to complete.

Qin music has rhythm, but it is only loosely indicated in tablature. Players must use clues like repeated patterns, phrases, or the arrangement of notes to guess the rhythm. Over time, musicians tried to make rhythm clearer, such as using dots to mark beats. One major effort to standardize rhythm was the Qinxue Congshu tablature collection from the 1910s to 1930s. This collection divided written tablature into two columns, with the first column further divided for clarity.

Organology

The guqin's shape and structure were influenced by the science of sound, but its appearance varied widely over time. This variation included differences in decorations and even the basic design of the instrument. Ancient written music from the Song dynasty and later periods recorded many different guqin styles. However, all these styles followed basic rules about how sound works and the symbolic meaning of their shapes. The guqin uses strings made of silk, metal, or nylon, and these strings are tuned according to traditional methods.

Early guqins were made mostly of wood and silk strings. Decorations often included small dots made of mother-of-pearl. The top part of the instrument, called the soundboard, was made from a type of wood called Chinese parasol wood, which was shaped to symbolize the sky. The bottom part was made from Chinese catalpa wood, shaped to represent the earth. Modern guqins are often made from different types of wood, such as Cunninghamia. The traditional finish used raw lacquer mixed with powdered deer horn, and this process could take months to complete. Over time, the lacquer develops cracks, which are believed to improve the instrument's sound. These cracks, called "duanwen" in Chinese, help determine the age of an old guqin.

Traditionally, the guqin had five strings, each representing one of the five elements: metal, wood, water, fire, and earth. Later, during the Zhou dynasty, King Wen of Zhou added a sixth string to honor his son, Boyikao. His son, King Wu of Zhou, added a seventh string to inspire soldiers during battles. The thirteen markings on the instrument, called "hui," represent the thirteen months of the lunar year, including the leap month. The rounded top of the guqin symbolizes the sky, while the flat bottom represents the earth. The total length of the guqin is 3 chi, 6 cun, and 5 fen, a measurement that reflects the 365 days of the year. Many parts of the guqin have symbolic names, such as "dragon pool" and "phoenix pond."

Until recently, guqin strings were made from twisted silk threads. However, many modern players now use nylon strings wrapped with metal. This change happened partly because high-quality silk became hard to find and partly because nylon strings are more durable and produce a louder sound.

Silk strings are made by twisting a specific number of silk threads together. The twisted threads are wrapped around a frame and soaked in a special glue mixture to hold them together. After drying, the strings are cut to the correct length. The thicker strings are then wrapped in a thin layer of silk to make them smoother. Ancient guides describe three types of silk string thickness: "taigu" (standard), "zhongqing" (thinner), and "jiazhong" (thicker). According to old manuals, "zhongqing" is considered the best. Today, the standard for silk strings was set by a maker named Pan Guohui in Suzhou.

Most modern players use nylon strings wrapped with metal, but some believe these cannot fully replace silk strings because of the unique tone silk produces. Nylon strings can also harm the wood of older guqins. Traditionalists value the sound created when the left hand's fingers slide along the strings, a feature that nylon strings struggle to replicate. Modern nylon strings are now slightly textured to help produce these sliding sounds.

In 2007, a new type of string was developed. These strings have a nylon core wrapped with nylon, similar to metal-nylon strings used in Western instruments. They produce a sound similar to metal-nylon strings but without the metallic tone, which some traditionalists dislike. Nylon strings can be tuned to standard pitch without breaking and remain in tune regardless of climate, unlike silk. These strings are sometimes called "silk-like" because they resemble older silk strings before silk production stopped in the 1950s.

Traditionally, guqin strings were tied around the "goose feet" (the parts where the strings attach to the body). A new device has been created to help tune the guqin more easily. This device includes a wooden block attached to the goose feet and pins, similar to those used on the guzheng, allowing players to use a tuning wrench to adjust the strings.

Tuning

To string a guqin, a person traditionally tied a special knot called a fly's head knot (yingtou jie) at one end of the string. The string was then passed through a twisted cord (rongkou) that goes into holes at the head of the qin and exits through the bottom near the tuning pegs (zhen). The string was pulled over the bridge (yueshan), across the surface board, over the nut (longyin, or dragon gums), and to the back of the qin, where the end was wrapped around one of two legs (fengzu, or phoenix feet, or yanzu, or geese feet). After this, the strings were adjusted to the correct pitch using the tuning pegs. Sometimes, rosin was applied to the part of the tuning peg that touched the qin body to prevent slipping, especially when tuning to higher pitches. The most common tuning, "zheng diao" (正調), uses a pentatonic scale: 5 6 1 2 3 5 6 (or 1 2 4 5 6 1 2) in the traditional Chinese number system or jianpu (where 1 = do, 2 = re, etc.). Today, this is often interpreted as C D F G A c d, but it should be understood as sol la do re mi sol la, since the guqin was historically not tuned to absolute pitch. Other tunings, such as manjiao diao ("slackened third string") and ruibin diao ("raised fifth string"), are created by adjusting the tension of the strings using the tuning pegs at the head end. Manjiao diao results in the scale 1 2 3 5 6 1 2, while ruibin diao produces 1 2 4 5 7 1 2, which can also be written as 2 3 5 6 1 2 3.

Playing context

The guqin is usually played alone because its soft sound cannot be heard clearly when other instruments or groups of musicians play together. However, it can be played with a xiao (a bamboo flute), other guqin instruments, or while singing. In the past, the se (a long zither with 25 strings and movable bridges) was often played with the guqin in pairs. The se is no longer used today, but some written music for playing it with the guqin still exists. A few musicians, like Wu Jinglüe in the 20th century, knew how to play the se and guqin together. Recently, some musicians have started using other instruments, such as the xun (a ceramic ocarina), pipa (a pear-shaped lute), and dizi (a bamboo flute), to accompany the guqin for new musical experiments.

To play with the guqin, the other instrument must have a soft, mellow sound that does not overpower the guqin. The xiao used for this purpose is called the qin xiao and is smaller than a regular xiao. If someone sings along with guqin music (which is rare today), they should sing in a very low, deep voice and not exceed one and a half octaves. This singing style is similar to how Tang poetry is recited. To fully understand guqin songs, listeners should get used to the unusual singing style used by some players, like Zha Fuxi.

Traditionally, the guqin was played in quiet rooms or outdoors in beautiful natural places, often by one person or a few friends. Today, many guqin players perform in large concert halls and use electronic devices to make the sound louder. Some players also attend yajis, which are gatherings where people discuss and play the guqin. Yajis began as events that included four arts: guqin, Go (a board game), calligraphy, and painting.

Because the guqin was associated with scholars, it was also used in religious ceremonies, such as yayue in China and aak in Korea. In Korea, the National Center for Korean Traditional Performing Arts continues to perform Munmyo jeryeak, a type of Confucian ritual music. This performance includes the seul (a type of se) and geum (a Korean version of the guqin). The Korean geum has some differences from the guqin, such as having 14 instead of 13 hui (markers on the instrument) and using finger techniques closer to those of the gayageum (a zither). The geum became a version of the guqin that is difficult for guqin players to use. Instead of adopting the guqin, Korean scholars created their own instrument, the geomungo, which shares some features with the guqin.

In China, the guqin was used in royal court rituals, as seen in paintings of Qing dynasty ceremonies. The guqin had many versions with different numbers of strings during the Song dynasty, but these versions are no longer used today.

In Japan, the guqin was not used in religious music but was later adapted by scholars and monks during the Edo period. It was eventually changed and became the Koto, a Japanese string instrument.

When the guqin is played, certain musical elements are important. For example, in the piece "Pingsha Luoyan," the beginning includes a vibrato followed by sliding up and down the string, even when the sound is barely audible. Some people might wonder if this is real music, but players often pluck the strings very softly to create quiet sounds. Some players do not pluck the strings at all, instead letting the strings naturally produce sound. Sliding on the string without making a sound creates a "space" or "void" in the music, allowing listeners to imagine the missing notes. This connection between the player, instrument, and listener is harder to achieve with recordings because listeners cannot see the performer. However, when the guqin is played with silk strings and in a quiet room, the sliding sound can be heard clearly. The pauses between notes are also important, as they represent the "life force" of the music. If sliding does not produce a sound, players may pluck the string lightly to create a soft sound.

In popular culture

The qin is an important symbol of Chinese culture and appears in many forms of popular media, though some portrayals are not always accurate. It is mentioned in TV shows, movies, and other media. In some cases, actors do not know how to play the qin and instead pretend to play it while listening to a pre-recorded qin performance. Occasionally, the music used is from a different instrument called the guzheng instead of the qin. A more accurate example is found in the film Hero by Zhang Yimou, where Xu Kuanghua plays a historical version of the qin in a courtyard scene during a fight at a Xiangqi parlour. The music in this scene was performed by Liu Li, a former professor at the Central Conservatory of Music in Beijing. It is believed that Xu Kuanghua made the qin himself.

The qin was also played by Chen Leiji during the 2008 Summer Olympics opening ceremony in Beijing.

The qin appears in many classical Chinese novels, such as Dream of the Red Chamber by Cao Xueqin and others. It is also used in modern Chinese novels, including the 2016 novel Mo Dao Zu Shi and its 2019 live-action adaptation, The Untamed. In this series, the qin is shown as a spiritual tool used by the main character, Lan Wangji. Behind-the-scenes footage showed that some actors took lessons to learn how to play the qin before filming scenes where their characters use the instrument.

Electric guqin

The electric guqin was created in the late 20th century by attaching special parts called magnetic pickups, similar to those on electric guitars, to a traditional acoustic guqin. This change allowed the instrument to be made louder using an amplifier or PA system.

Related instruments

The Japanese ichigenkin, a single-string zither, is thought to have come from the qin. A qin handbook called Lixing Yuanya (1618) includes some music for a one-string qin. Another source, Wuzhi Zhai Qinpu, shows a picture and describes such an instrument. The modern ichigenkin likely appeared in Japan shortly after that time. However, the honkyoku (standard pieces) played on the ichigenkin today are most similar to those played on the shamisen.

The Korean geomungo may also be connected, but only in a distant way. Korean scholars wanted to play an instrument in the same way as Chinese scholars played the qin. The music for the geomungo mostly came from melodies performed by the court orchestra.