The viola da gamba (Italian: [ˈvjɔːla da (ɡ)ˈɡamba, viˈɔːla -]), also called the viol or gamba, is a string instrument played with a bow and has frets. It is held "on the leg" (da gamba) and is different from the violin or viola da braccio, which came later. It belongs to the viol family, a group of older bowed, fretted string instruments with hollow wooden bodies and pegboxes. These pegboxes allow players to adjust string tension to change pitch. Viols were commonly made in sizes such as treble, tenor, and bass, but also included pardessus (high treble, developed in the 18th century), alto, small tenor, tenor, bass, and contrabass (called violone).

Viols are different from later instruments like the violin family in how they look and are held. When played, the neck of a viol is usually angled upward, and the rounded bottom faces downward, resting on the player’s lap or between the knees.

The viola da gamba uses the alto clef. Seven or eight frets, made of "stretched gut," are tied around the fingerboard. These frets can be adjusted, unlike those on a guitar, allowing for better tuning. Frets help players press strings cleanly, improve pitch consistency, and make stopped notes sound closer to open strings.

Viols first appeared in Spain and Italy during the mid-to-late 15th century and were widely used during the Renaissance and Baroque periods (1600–1750). Early ancestors include the Arabic rebab and the medieval European vielle. Later ancestors include the Venetian viole and the 15th- and 16th-century Spanish vihuela, a six-course plucked instrument tuned like a lute (and similar to a modern viol). The vihuela looked like a four-course guitar but was distinct from it. The rebab originally came from a Persian instrument called the rubāb.

Bass viols look somewhat like cellos but differ in several ways. Viols have flat backs, sloped shoulders, c-shaped holes, and five to seven strings, while violins have curved backs, rounded shoulders, f-shaped holes, and four strings. Viols are tuned in fourths with a third in the middle (like a lute), use frets, and are played with an underhand bow grip, unlike the overhand grip used in the violin family.

A person who plays the viol is called a gambist, violist (pronounced /ˈvaɪəlɪst/), or violist da gamba. The term "violist" can be confusing because it is also used to describe a player of the viola, a modern instrument. This confusion can occur in writing unless the context is clear.

History

In the second half of the 15th century, vihuelists began using a bow to play their flat-topped, originally plucked instruments. Within two or three decades, this change led to the creation of a new bowed string instrument that kept many features of the vihuela, such as a flat back, sharp waist-cuts, frets, thin ribs, and the same tuning. This instrument was originally called the vihuela de arco, with arco meaning "bow" in Spanish. Some believe the way the instrument was held was influenced by Moorish rabab players.

Stefano Pio (2012) suggests that new evidence shows the viol may have originated in Venice rather than from the vihuela de arco of Aragon. He argues that it was unlikely Italian instrument makers, rather than Venetian ones, caused the rapid evolution of the vihuela de arco. However, within ten years, a new family of instruments called viola da gamba (viols) appeared in Italy. These included instruments of different sizes, some as large as the violoni, described by Prospero Bernardino in 1493 as "as big as a man."

Pio notes that the fifth string of the viola da gamba is called a bordone (drone) in early writings, such as those by Antonius de Leno and Silvestro Ganassi dal Fontego. However, this string is not a drone and is played like the others. Pio explains this by suggesting that a larger instrument, based on the medieval violetta, was created in the late 15th century. This instrument gradually added more strings to reach lower pitches. The fifth string was added to the neck, and later, a sixth string (basso) was added to produce a deeper sound. Pio believes the viola da gamba evolved from the smaller violetta or vielle, which originally had a fifth-string "drone," and the name remained even after the drone function was removed.

Ian Woodfield, in The Early History of the Viol, states that the viol may have started with the vihuela, but Italian instrument makers quickly adapted their advanced techniques to the early version of the instrument after it was introduced to Italy.

Construction

Viols most often have six strings. However, many 16th-century viols had only four or five strings. In the 17th century, some French bass viols had a seventh string. Viols are strung with gut strings that are less tight than those on violins. Gut strings make a sound that is softer and sweeter than steel strings. Around 1660 in Bologna, strings made with gut or silk covered in copper wire became available. These were used for the lowest strings on viols and other instruments. In 1664, a new type of string called a "gimped" string was created. This string had copper wire woven into the gut fibers, similar to a type of embroidery.

Viols are played with frets, like early guitars or lutes. The frets are made of gut and can be moved. A seventh string was added to the bass viol in France by Monsieur de Sainte-Colombe, a musician who lived from about 1640 to 1690. His student, Marin Marais, was a famous composer. A painting from 1618 shows a person holding what may be a seven-string viol.

Unlike violins, which are usually tuned in fifths, viols are typically tuned in fourths, with a major third in the middle. This tuning was used on the vihuela de mano and lute in the 16th century and is similar to the tuning of a modern six-string guitar.

Early viols were built like the vihuela de mano, using flat pieces of wood bent to shape the instrument. Some viols later had carved tops, like those on violins. The sides of early viols were shallow, like those on plucked vihuelas. Over time, the sides became deeper, resembling the 17th-century style.

Most viols have flat backs with a sharp angle near where the neck meets the body. This design helps the back taper to fit the neck. Traditional construction used animal glue. Internal joints were reinforced with strips of linen or vellum soaked in hot glue, a method also used for vihuelas. The peg boxes, which hold the tuning pegs, were often decorated with carved animal or human heads or with a spiral scroll.

The earliest vihuelas and viols had sharp waist cuts, similar to modern violins. This was a new feature that appeared in the mid-15th century and was used on many string instruments. This helped show the connection between plucked and bowed vihuelas. Early viols did not have smooth, curved bodies like plucked vihuelas or modern guitars. By the mid-16th century, "guitar-shaped" viols became common.

Early viols had flat bridges like plucked vihuelas. Later, viols used a wider, high-arched bridge to help bowing single strings. Early viols had flat fretboards that rested on the top of the instrument. Once the fretboards were raised, the top could vibrate freely. Early viols did not have sound posts, which made their sound softer and more "humming." However, this also made them quieter overall.

C-holes, which are sound ports on the top of string instruments, are often seen on viols. This helps distinguish viols from violins, which usually have F-shaped holes. However, early viols sometimes had round holes or rosettes like those on lutes and vihuelas. Some viols had two or four C-holes, placed in different areas. By the mid-16th century, some viols used S-shaped holes, which later became F-shaped holes. By the late 16th century, C-holes on viols faced outward. Some viols also had flame-shaped Arabesques or round ports, which were common in German and Austrian viols.

Historians, makers, and players usually separate viols into Renaissance and Baroque styles. Baroque viols are more solid and have a bass bar and sound post, like modern string instruments.

The bow for a viol is held with the palm facing up, like a German double bass bow. The bow stick curves outward, like violin bows from that time. The frog, which holds the bow hair, is different from modern bows. Viol bows have an open frog that allows the hair to move. This helps players press the hair against the stick to control the sound.

Different versions

Viols come in seven sizes: "pardessus de viole" (a rare instrument used only in France and created after the 18th century), treble (called "dessus" in French), alto, tenor (called "taille" in French), bass, great bass, and contrabass (the last two are sometimes called "violone," meaning large viol). The smaller violone is tuned an octave below the tenor (called "violone in G" or "great bass" in French), and the larger violone is tuned an octave below the bass (called "violone in D" or "contrabass viol"). This instrument should not be confused with the double bass.

The tuning of these instruments alternates between G and D: pardessus in G, treble in D, tenor in G, bass in D (the seven-string bass was invented in France and includes an extra low A string), small violone in G, large violone in D, and the alto (a smaller version of the tenor).

The treble is about the same size as a viola but has a deeper body. The typical bass is similar in size to a cello. The pardessus and treble were held vertically on the lap. The English made smaller basses called "division viols" and even smaller ones called "Lyra viols." The "viola bastarda" was a type of viol used in Italy for complex music. German "consort basses" were larger than French instruments used for continuo music.

Not all viols were equally common. A typical group of six viol instruments during the Elizabethan era included two basses, two tenors, and two trebles, or one bass, three tenors, and two trebles (as seen in "Chest of viols"). This shows the bass, tenor, and treble were the most important for music written specifically for viols. The bass could also be played alone or used as a continuo instrument. Smaller basses, like the division viol, Lyra viol, and viola bastarda, were designed for solo performances. The pardessus was a French 18th-century instrument created so women could play music meant for the violin or flute, but it later had its own music. The alto was a rare, smaller version of the tenor. The violones were rarely part of viol ensembles but were used as bass or contrabass in various musical groups.

Tuning

The standard tuning of most viols is in fourths, with a major third between the middle strings (like the standard Renaissance lute tuning), or in fourths, with a major third between the second and third strings (like a modern guitar). The following table shows the tunings that have been used by many people during the 20th and 21st-century revival of the viols. (Lyra viol tunings are not included in this list.)

Alternative tunings, called scordatura, were often used, especially in the solo lyra viol style of playing. This style also used techniques such as chords and pizzicato, which were not commonly used when playing in groups. A special type of pizzicato was called a thump. Music for the lyra viol was often written in tablature. There is a large collection of this music, some written by famous composers and much by unknown composers.

Much viol music was created before musicians widely used equal temperament tuning. The adjustable frets on viols allow players to change how the instrument is tuned. Some players and groups use meantone temperaments, which work better with Renaissance music. Some fretting systems use unevenly spaced frets to create better-sounding chords in specific keys. In some systems, the two strands of gut that make up a fret are separated, allowing the player to play slightly sharper or flatter notes (for example, G♯ instead of A♭) to fit different musical needs.

Treatises

Descriptions and drawings of viols appear in many musical books from the early 16th century. These books were written by:

• Sebastian Virdung: Musica getutsch, 1511
• Hans Judenkünig: Ain schone kunstliche Vunderwaisung, 1523
• Martin Agricola: Musica instrumentalis deutsch, 1528
• Hans Gerle: Musica Teusch (or Teutsch), 1532

Agricola’s and Gerle’s books were printed in multiple versions.

Later, several important books focused on the viol. The first was written by Silvestro Ganassi dal Fontego: Regola Rubertina & Lettione Seconda (1542/3). Diego Ortiz published Trattado de Glosas (Rome, 1553), a significant book of music for the viol that includes examples of decorative music and pieces called Recercadas. In England, Christopher Simpson wrote the most important book about the viol. The second edition of this book, published in 1667, was written in both English and Latin. It includes sections at the end that are valuable for playing. A little later, Thomas Mace wrote Musick's Monument in England. This book focuses more on the lute but includes an important section about the viol. After this, French books by Machy (1685), Rousseau (1687), Danoville (1687), and Etienne Loulie (1700) show how playing techniques for the viol improved over time.

Popularity

Viols were the second most popular instrument after the lute, though some people disagree about this. Like lutes, viols were often played by people who were not professional musicians. Wealthy families sometimes had a chest of viols, which included one or more instruments of each size. Groups of musicians called consorts, made up of gamba instruments, were common during the 16th and 17th centuries. These groups played both vocal music, such as consort songs or verse anthems, and music written specifically for instruments. The treble, tenor, and bass sizes were regular members of a viol consort, which could include three, four, five, or six instruments. Music for consorts was especially popular in England during the Elizabethan era, with composers like William Byrd and John Dowland. During the time of King Charles I, composers such as John Jenkins, William Lawes, and Tobias Hume also wrote for consorts. The last known music for viol consorts before their modern revival was likely written in the early 1680s by Henry Purcell.

A type of group called a mixed or broken consort (also known as a Morley consort) was even more common than pure viol consorts. Broken consorts combined different instruments, usually played by amateur musicians who gathered for social events. These groups often included a bass viol, a lute or orpharion (a lute with metal frets and a flat back), a cittern, a treble viol (or violin, as time passed), and sometimes an early keyboard instrument like a virginal, spinet, or harpsichord. The most common pairing of instruments was always the lute and bass viol, which were played together for centuries.

The bass viola da gamba remained in use as a solo instrument into the 18th century and was used to support the harpsichord in basso continuo. It was a favorite instrument of Louis XIV and became associated with French courtly style. Composers such as Marc-Antoine Charpentier, François Couperin, Marin Marais, Sainte Colombe, Johann Sebastian Bach, Johannes Schenck, DuBuisson, Antoine Forqueray, Charles Dollé, and Carl Friedrich Abel wrote music for it. Georg Philipp Telemann published his Twelve Fantasias for Viola da Gamba solo in 1735, by which time the instrument was becoming less popular. Viols fell out of use as concert halls grew larger, and the louder sound of the violin family became more favored. In the 20th century, the viola da gamba and its music were revived by people interested in early music, including Arnold Dolmetsch.

The treble viol in D and the smaller pardessus de viole in G (often with five strings) were also popular in the 18th century, especially in France. Composers like Jean-Baptiste Barrière, Georg Philipp Telemann, and Marin Marais wrote music for these instruments. It was common to play music written for violins or flutes on small viols.

Many historic viols still exist, though few are in their original condition. They are often found in museum and university collections. Some examples at The Metropolitan Museum of Art include:

• Division Viol by Barak Norman, London, 1692
• Bass Viol, labeled Richard Meares, London, ca. 1680
• Bass Viol by John Rose, ca. 1600, London
• English viol, unsigned, 17th century in excellent original condition
• Division Viol, School of Tielke, Hamburg, ca. 1720
• Bass Viol by Matthias Humel, 18th century, Nuremberg
• Bass Viol, Germany, 18th century
• Bass Viol by Nicolas Bertrand, Paris, 1720

• Painting by Abraham Bosse, Musical Society, French, c. 1635. This painting shows amateur musicians playing a lute, bass viol, and singing, with music books on a table. It represents a type of broken consort with simple instrumentation.
• Portrait of French composer and viola da gamba master Marin Marais, by André Bouys, 1704.
• Portrait of Carl Friedrich Abel, a German-born composer and viol master who lived in England, posing with his viola da gamba, by Thomas Gainsborough, c. 1765.
• Gambenspielerin (The Viola da Gamba Player), by Bernardo Strozzi, c. 1630–1640; the painting depicts composer Barbara Strozzi (1619–1677), from the Gemäldegalerie, Dresden.
• Viol player in the Honfleur Église Sainte-Catherine, c. 1550–1600
• Viola da gambe and viola da braccio (viol of the leg and violin of the arm). Painting by Matthias Grünewald (1480–1528).

Modern era

In the 20th and early 21st centuries, the viol became more popular, especially among amateur musicians, people who enjoy early music, and music schools. This growth may be because more affordable viol instruments are now available due to automated production methods, and early music scores and historical writings are easier to find. The viol is also considered a good instrument for adults to learn. Percy Scholes noted that viol music was created for musicianship, not just technical skill. Today, many groups focus on the viol. The first was the Viola da Gamba Society, founded in the United Kingdom in 1948 by Nathalie and Cecile Dolmetsch. The Viola da Gamba Society of America started in 1962. Similar groups formed in other countries. In the 1970s, the Guitar and Lute Workshop in Honolulu helped increase interest in the viol and traditional instrument-making methods in the western United States.

A well-known youth viol group is the Gateshead Viol Ensemble. It includes young players aged 7 to 18 and is famous in northeast England. The group helps young people learn to play the viol and performs concerts in the North East and abroad. Groups like this show that the viol is becoming more popular again. A living museum of historical instruments was created at the University of Vienna to revive the viol. Over 100 instruments, including about 50 playable violas da gamba, are part of the Orpheon Foundation Museum of Historical Instruments. These instruments are used by the Orpheon Baroque Orchestra, the Orpheon consort, or musicians who borrow them long-term. The museum displays the instruments during exhibitions, and violin makers study and copy them to learn more about the viola da gamba’s design and construction.

The 1991 film Tous les matins du monde (All the Mornings of the World), directed by Alain Corneau, highlighted the music of Monsieur de Sainte-Colombe and Marin Marais for the viola da gamba. The film’s soundtrack, performed by Jordi Savall, introduced viol music to new audiences. Notable modern viol players include Alison Crum, Vittorio Ghielmi, Susanne Heinrich, Wieland Kuijken, Paolo Pandolfo, Andrea de Carlo, Hille Perl, and Jonathan Dunford. Many modern viol ensembles, such as Fretwork, the Rose Consort of Viols, Les Voix Humaines, and Phantasm, record and perform. The Baltimore Consort specializes in Renaissance songs with viol ensembles.

Several contemporary composers have written music for the viol, and many have commissioned new works. Fretwork has worked with composers like George Benjamin, Michael Nyman, Elvis Costello, and others, with some pieces on their 1997 CD Sit Fast. The Yukimi Kambe Viol Consort and the New York Consort of Viols have also commissioned music, with recordings on their CDs. The Viola da Gamba Society of America encourages new compositions through its New Music for Viols series and the International Leo M. Traynor Composition Competition. This competition, held every four to five years since 1989, focuses on music for three to six viol players, similar to Renaissance music, and is accessible to skilled amateurs. Winning pieces are performed and published by the Society to support the viol’s modern revival.

The Palazzo Strozzi in Florence commissioned composer Bruce Adolphe to create a piece based on Bronzino’s poems, titled Of Art and Onions: Homage to Bronzino, which includes a prominent viola da gamba part. Jay Elfenbein has written works for groups like the Yukimi Kambe Viol Consort and Les Voix Humaines. Other composers for the viol include Moondog, Kevin Volans, Roy Whelden, Toyohiko Satoh, Roman Turovsky, Giorgio Pacchioni, Michael Starke, Emily Doolittle, and Jan Goorissen. Henry Vega has written pieces for the viol, including Ssolo and Slow slower. The Aston Magna Music Festival has commissioned works from composers like Nico Muhly and Alex Burtzos. Italian composer Carlotta Ferrari wrote two pieces for the viol: Le ombre segrete (2015) and Profondissimi affetti (2016), the latter based on RPS modal harmony.

Since the 1980s, instrument makers like Eric Jensen, Francois Danger, Jan Goorissen, and Jonathan Wilson have experimented with electric viol designs. Electric viols use pickups or microphones connected to amplifiers or PA systems to make them louder. Amplifiers allow performers to change the instrument’s tone using effects like reverb or equalizers. Electric viols range from Danger’s Altra line, which is minimally electrified, to Jensen’s solid-body design. The Ruby Gamba, a seven-string electric viola da gamba with 21 adjustable frets, was developed by Ruby Instrument in the Netherlands. It has a playing range of over six octaves. Contemporary musicians like Paolo Pandolfo, Tina Chancey, and Tony Overwater use electric viols.

Similar names and common confusions

The viola da gamba is sometimes mistaken for the viola, which is the alto instrument in the modern violin family and is commonly used in symphony orchestras and string quartets. In the 15th century, the Italian word "viola" was a general term for any bowed instrument, or fiddle. Before the vihuela (the first viol) arrived from Spain, the word "viola" was already used in Italy. In Italy, "viola" first referred to a braccio instrument that was an early version of the modern violin, as described by Tinctoris in De inventione et usu musice (c. 1481–3). Later, the term was also used to describe the first Italian viols. Depending on the context, the unmodified term "viola da braccio" usually meant either a violin family instrument or specifically the viola, which was called "alto de viola da braccio." When Monteverdi wrote "viole da braccio" in Orfeo, he was referring to violas as well as treble and bass instruments. The full name "alto de viola da braccio" was eventually shortened to "viola" in some languages, such as English, Italian, and Spanish, after viols became less common. Other languages, like French and German, used different parts of the phrase to name the instrument, such as "alto" and "Bratsche" (from the Italian "braccio").

Some instruments have "viola" in their names but are not part of the viola da gamba family. These include the viola d'amore and the viola pomposa. The baryton, which does not have "viola" in its name, is sometimes grouped with the viol family. Whether it is considered a member of this family depends on how the term is defined. The baryton is closely related to the viola da gamba but is not typically included in groups of differently sized instruments that play together in consorts. The terms "viola" (Italy) and "vihuela" (Spain) were used interchangeably. According to historian Ian Woodfield, there is little evidence that the vihuela de arco was introduced to Italy before the 1490s. In the 15th and 16th centuries, the term "viola" was not used exclusively for viols. In 16th-century Italy, both early viols and violins developed at roughly the same time. While violins, such as those made by Amati, reached their classic form before the first half of the century, the viol's design became standardized later in the century by English instrument makers.

Alternative names for viols include "viola da gamba," "viola cum arculo," and "vihuela de arco." The terms "vihuela" and "viola" were originally used broadly, including early violins (viola da braccio) under their categories. Today, it is common for modern players of the viola da gamba to call their instruments "violas" and themselves "violist." The name "alto violin" eventually became simply "viola" due to historical reasons, though this can cause confusion. The violin, or "violino," was originally the soprano viola da braccio, or "violino da braccio." Because the soprano violin was so popular, the entire group of instruments came to be called the "violin family." Other names for viols include "viole" or "violle" in French. In Elizabethan English, the word "gambo" (meaning "gamba") appears in various forms, such as "viola de gambo," "gambo violl," "viol de gambo," or "viole de gambo," used by figures like Tobias Hume, John Dowland, and William Shakespeare in Twelfth Night. The terms "Viol da Gamba" and "Gamba" also appear as string family stops on the pipe organ. These stops produce sounds that mimic the tone of the viol da gamba.