The double bass, also called the upright bass, acoustic bass, bull fiddle, Bass Fiddle, string bass, or simply the bass, is the largest and lowest-pitched string instrument in the modern symphony orchestra (except for rare instruments like the octobass). It has four or five strings and is built between the designs of the gamba (viol) and the violin family.
The bass is a regular part of the orchestra’s string section, along with violins, violas, and cellos. It is also used in concert bands and appears in concertos, solo performances, and chamber music in Western classical music. The bass is played in many other styles, including jazz, blues, rock and roll, rockabilly, country music, bluegrass, tango, folk music, and some film and video game soundtracks.
Scholars are still unsure about the exact origins of the double bass, with some believing it came from the viol family and others thinking it evolved from the violin family.
As a transposing instrument, the bass is written one octave higher than it sounds to make the music easier to read. Unlike most bowed string instruments, the double bass is tuned in fourths (like a bass guitar, viol, or the lowest four strings of a standard guitar), not fifths. Its strings are usually tuned to E1, A1, D2, and G2.
The double bass can be played by bowing the strings (arco), plucking the strings (pizzicato), slapping the strings for certain rock and roll or rockabilly styles, or using other special techniques. In orchestral music and tango, both bowing and plucking are used. In jazz, blues, and rockabilly, plucking is most common. Classical music and jazz rely on the instrument’s natural, acoustic sound, as does traditional bluegrass. In funk, blues, reggae, and similar genres, the double bass is often amplified.
Terminology
A person who plays this instrument is called a "bassist," "double bassist," "double bass player," "contrabassist," "contrabass player," or "bass player." The names "contrabass" and "double bass" describe the instrument's ability to play very low notes and its use one octave lower than the cello. Originally, the double bass played the same notes as the cello but an octave lower. Over time, it developed its own unique parts. In classical music, the instrument is also called "contrabass" (from its Italian name, "contrabbasso"), "string bass" (to avoid confusion with brass instruments like tubas), or simply "bass."
In jazz, blues, rockabilly, and other non-classical genres, the instrument is often called "upright bass," "standup bass," or "acoustic bass" to distinguish it from the electric bass guitar. In folk and bluegrass music, it is sometimes called a "bass fiddle" or "bass violin," though these terms are less common. The upright bass is not part of the violin family, and its design is very different from the acoustic bass guitar. The acoustic bass guitar is based on the electric bass guitar and resembles a larger, sturdier version of a viola de gamba, an older instrument.
The double bass is sometimes mistakenly called the "violone," "bass violin," or "bass viol."
Description
A typical double bass is about 180 cm (6 feet) tall from the scroll to the endpin. The traditional "full-size" (4⁄4 size) bass is usually 74.8 inches (190 cm) long, while the more common 3⁄4 size bass, which is widely used today even by orchestra musicians, is about 71.6 inches (182 cm) long. Other sizes, such as 1⁄2 or 1⁄4, are also available to fit a player’s height and hand size. The names of these sizes do not mean they are proportionally smaller than a full-size bass. For example, a 1⁄2 size bass is only about 15% shorter than a 4⁄4 size bass.
Double basses are usually made from different types of wood. The back is often made of maple, the top from spruce, and the fingerboard from ebony. It is not known if the double bass evolved from the viola da gamba or the violin, but it is traditionally considered part of the violin family. Though the double bass shares similar construction with other violin family instruments, it also has features found in older viol family instruments.
The open strings of a double bass are tuned to E1, A1, D2, and G2, the same as an acoustic or electric bass guitar. However, the wood’s natural sound, combined with its violin-like structure and long scale length, gives the double bass a richer tone than a bass guitar. The double bass can also be played with a bow, and its fretless fingerboard allows for smooth sliding notes and legato playing.
Playing style
The double bass is played in the same way as other string instruments like the violin and viola. It can be played with a bow (called arco) or by plucking the strings (called pizzicato). When using a bow, the player may use it in the traditional way or strike the bow's wood against the string. In orchestral music and tango, both arco and pizzicato are used. In jazz, blues, and rockabilly, pizzicato is most common, except for some solos or parts in modern jazz that require bowing.
When the bow is used to play very low notes on the double bass, the sound can be dark, heavy, or even threatening if played very loudly. The same low notes played softly can create a warm, smooth background sound. Classical bass students learn various bow techniques used by other string players, such as détaché, legato, staccato, sforzato, martelé ("hammered" style), sul ponticello, sul tasto, tremolo, spiccato, and sautillé. Some techniques can be combined, like sul ponticello and tremolo, which can create strange, ghost-like sounds. In orchestras, classical bass players often play pizzicato parts, but these parts usually include simple notes (quarter, half, whole notes) rather than fast, complex passages.
Classical bass players use vibrato when playing both arco and pizzicato notes. Vibrato is created by moving the left hand finger that touches the string back and forth, which causes the pitch to change slightly. This adds emotion to the music. Very loud, low notes are usually played with little or no vibrato to keep the bass sound clear. Mid- and high-pitched notes are often played with more vibrato. The speed and strength of vibrato can be changed by the player to create different musical effects.
In jazz, rockabilly, and similar styles, pizzicato is the main way the double bass is played. In jazz and jump blues, bassists often play fast pizzicato basslines for long periods. Jazz and rockabilly bassists develop highly skilled pizzicato techniques to play fast solos with quick triplet and sixteenth note patterns. Pizzicato basslines played by top jazz musicians are more complex than those in classical orchestral music, which usually include whole, half, quarter, and occasional eighth notes. In jazz and related styles, bassists often add "ghost notes" to basslines to improve rhythm and add extra beats.
The double bass player stands or sits on a high stool, holding the instrument against their body with the strings positioned comfortably for playing. This playing position is why the double bass has slanted shoulders, which differ from other violin family instruments. The narrower shape of the shoulders helps the player reach the higher notes on the strings.
History
The double bass is considered a modern version of the violone, a large string instrument from the viol family that originated in Europe during the 15th century. Before the 20th century, most double basses had three strings, unlike the five to six strings of viol family instruments or the four strings of violin family instruments. The double bass has a different shape and size compared to the violin and cello. For example, it is deeper, meaning the distance from front to back is much greater than on a violin. While violins have rounded shoulders, most double basses have shoulders that slope more sharply, similar to viols. Many old double basses had their shoulders altered to make them easier to play with modern techniques. Before these changes, their shoulder design was more like that of violin family instruments.
The double bass is the only modern bowed string instrument that is tuned in fourths, like a viol, instead of fifths. The exact origins of the double bass are still debated, and it is not certain whether it is directly descended from the viol family.
In A New History of the Double Bass, Paul Brun claims the double bass originated as the true bass of the violin family. He explains that, although the double bass looks similar to the viola da gamba, its internal structure is nearly identical to violin family instruments and very different from viols.
Larry Hurst, a double bass professor, argues that the modern double bass is not a true member of either the violin or viol families. He suggests the double bass likely began as a violone, the largest instrument in the viol family. Some of the earliest surviving double basses are violones that have been modified with modern features. For example, some instruments made by Gasparo da Salò were changed from 16th-century six-string contrabass violoni.
Design
The double bass has two main design shapes: the violin form and the viola da gamba form. A third, less common shape is called the busetto, and an even rarer shape is the guitar or pear shape. The back of the instrument can be either rounded and carved like a violin or flat and angled like a viol.
The double bass shares many parts with the violin family, such as a carved wooden bridge to hold the strings, two f-holes, a tailpiece where the string ends are attached (secured around the endpin mount), an ornamental scroll near the pegbox, a nut with grooves for the strings at the pegbox and fingerboard junction, and a thick sound post that sends vibrations from the top of the instrument to the hollow body and supports string tension. Unlike other violin family instruments, the double bass has features influenced by the viol family, especially the violone, the largest and lowest-pitched viol. For example, the double bass is tuned in fourths, like a viol, instead of fifths, which is standard for violins. The "shoulders" of the double bass meet the neck in a curve, not a sharp angle like violins. The bridge is curved, as needed for bowed instruments to allow playing individual strings. A flat bridge would make it impossible to bow the A and D strings separately.
The double bass also has sloped shoulders and an angled back, both designed to make playing the upper range easier. Machine tuners are always used, unlike the wooden pegs on other violin family instruments. Because designs are not standardized, double basses can look and sound very different from one another.
The double bass is most similar in construction to violins but shares some features with the violone, the largest viol. Unlike the violone, the double bass has four strings instead of six and an unfretted fingerboard. High-quality fingerboards are made of ebony, while less expensive ones may use other woods painted black (a process called "ebonizing"). The fingerboard and bridge are curved to allow bowing individual strings. Like the cello, the double bass’s fingerboard is slightly flattened under the E string, a feature called the Romberg bevel. Most fingerboards cannot be adjusted by the player; only a luthier can make changes. A few expensive professional basses have adjustable fingerboards with screw mechanisms.
The double bass differs from other violin family instruments in its tuning mechanism. Violins, violas, and cellos use wooden pegs, while the double bass uses metal machine heads with gears. Turning the key on the machine head tightens or loosens the string, changing its pitch. This design makes fine tuners on the tailpiece unnecessary, though some bassists use them for instruments with a low C extension. At the bottom of the double bass is a thick, spiked or rubberized endpin, which is stronger than a cello’s endpin due to the instrument’s weight.
Professional double basses are typically made from maple (back, neck, ribs), spruce (top), and ebony (fingerboard, tailpiece). The tailpiece may be made of other materials. Less expensive basses often use laminated (plywood) wood for the top, back, and ribs, or hybrid models with laminated backs and carved tops. Some modern basses use willow, Fiberglass, or carbon fiber.
Laminated basses are popular in schools, youth orchestras, and folk or rock music because they are durable and resistant to humidity and heat. Hybrid basses, with laminated backs and carved tops, are less expensive and more durable than fully carved basses.
Inside the double bass, the soundpost and bass bar are important parts. Most parts are glued together, except the soundpost, bridge, and tailpiece, which are held in place by string tension. If the soundpost falls out, a luthier must reinsert it using tools through the f-holes. The soundpost’s exact position is critical for the instrument’s sound. Bridges on student instruments may be simple and customized by sanding, while professional bridges are intricately carved. Some professional basses have adjustable bridges with screw mechanisms to change string height based on humidity or temperature.
Mechanism of sound production
The strings of the bass are small in size, so they do not move much air by themselves. This means they cannot make much sound on their own. The energy from the strings' vibrations needs to move to the air around the bass. To do this, the strings cause the bridge to vibrate. The bridge then sends these vibrations to the top surface of the bass body. The bridge changes the vibrations so that they have more movement but less force. This happens because the bridge and the body of the bass work together. The top of the bass is connected to the back by a sound post, so the back also vibrates. Both the top and back help send the vibrations into the air. They also help match how well the vibrations from the strings can move through the air.
Specific sound and tone production mechanism
The acoustic bass is a type of instrument that does not have frets. When the strings are plucked or bowed, they vibrate against the fingerboard near the area where the fingers press the strings. This vibration creates a buzzing sound, which helps give the note its unique quality.
Pitch
The lowest note of a double bass is an E1 (about 41 Hz) or a C1 (about 33 Hz) on standard four-string basses. When five strings are used, the lowest note can sometimes be a B0 (about 31 Hz). This range is within about one octave above the lowest sound most people can hear clearly. The highest note a double bass can play is usually near D5, which is two octaves and a fifth above the open G2 note on the G string. This range is shown in an illustration at the beginning of this article. To play notes beyond the end of the fingerboard, the player can gently pull the string to the side.
In some symphony parts, double bass players are asked to play harmonics, also called flageolet tones. To do this, the player lightly touches the string at a specific point without pressing it down and then plucks or bows the string. Bowed harmonics are often used in modern music for their "glassy" sound. Both natural harmonics (produced by touching the string at natural points) and artificial harmonics (produced by stopping the string with the thumb and touching it at a specific node) allow the double bass to reach higher notes. These techniques are commonly used in virtuoso concertos for the instrument.
In classical orchestral music, double bass parts usually require notes within a two-octave and a minor third range, from E1 to G3. Occasionally, an A3 may appear, though this is rare. An exception is Orff’s Carmina Burana, which requires a range of three octaves and a perfect fourth. Modern orchestral music, such as Prokofiev’s Lieutenant Kijé Suite (around 1933), often includes higher notes, such as D4 and E♭4. The highest notes a skilled player can reach using harmonics depend on their ability. The illustration at the beginning of this article shows an example of this range.
Five-string double basses have an extra string, usually tuned to a low B (B0) below the E string. Rarely, a higher string may be added, tuned to a C above the G string (C3). Four-string basses sometimes include a C extension, allowing the E string to play down to C1 (or B0).
Traditionally, the double bass is a transposing instrument. Since much of its range is below the standard bass clef, music is written an octave higher than it sounds to avoid using too many ledger lines below the staff. For example, when double bass players and cellists perform from a combined bass-cello part (as in some Mozart and Haydn symphonies), the basses play an octave below the cellos. This transposition applies even when reading tenor or treble clefs, which are used for solo parts and some orchestral music. The tenor clef is also used for cello and low brass parts. Using tenor or treble clefs helps avoid excessive ledger lines above the staff when notating higher notes. Other notation traditions exist. In Italian solo music, notes are usually written at their actual pitch. In older German notation, music was written an octave lower than it sounded, except in the treble clef, where it was written at actual pitch.
Tuning
The double bass is usually tuned in fourths, which is different from other string instruments in an orchestra, like the violin. The violin’s strings are tuned in fifths, from lowest to highest: G–D–A–E. The standard tuning for the double bass, from lowest to highest, is E–A–D–G. This tuning starts with an E that is one octave below the second low C (concert pitch). This is the same tuning as a bass guitar and is one octave lower than the four lowest strings of a standard guitar. Before the 19th century, some double basses had three strings instead of four. This design reduced tension, which helped produce a better solo tone and more sound. Giovanni Bottesini, a famous musician from 1821 to 1889, preferred the three-stringed instrument popular in Italy at that time because it was considered more sonorous. Today, some traditional music groups in Catalonia still use three-string double basses tuned A–D–G.
In classical music, some notes are lower than the standard range of the double bass. For example, in later arrangements of Baroque music, notes below low E appear in double bass parts. During the Classical era, the double bass often played an octave below the cello part, sometimes requiring notes as low as C. In the Romantic era and the 20th century, composers like Wagner, Mahler, Busoni, and Prokofiev also wrote parts with notes below low E.
To play these low notes, musicians use several methods. Those with standard four-string double basses (E–A–D–G) can play the notes below E an octave higher or transpose the entire passage up an octave if needed. Alternatively, the low E string can be tuned down to D or C. Some four-string basses have a "low-C extension," which adds extra length to the fingerboard. Another option is using a five-string double bass, with the fifth string tuned to C or, more commonly today, B. Many European orchestras use five-string basses.
Most professional orchestral players use four-string double basses with a "C extension." This extension is an extra section of fingerboard attached to the head of the bass, allowing the lowest string to be tuned down to C, which is an octave below the lowest note on a cello. Rarely, the lowest string may be tuned to low B, as some compositions, like Respighi’s The Pines of Rome, require this note. Some players also use a "low B extension" for even lower notes.
Extensions can be simple or complex. The simplest type has a locking nut or "gate" for the E note. To play the extended notes, the musician reaches under the scroll to press the string against the fingerboard. This method allows for adjusting intonation but can make it hard to switch quickly between low and high notes. Another system uses wooden "fingers" or "gates" that lock the string into place for specific notes, such as C♯, D, E♭, or E. This is useful for repeated notes, like a low D. The most complex system uses mechanical levers, similar to those on a bassoon, to control metal "fingers" on the extension. These systems can lock notes in place but may create unwanted clicking sounds.
Once a mechanical or wooden extension is locked, it becomes difficult to make small pitch adjustments or glissando effects, which are easier with a hand-fingered extension.
Five-string double basses, which usually have a lowest string tuned to B, can have additional extensions for lower notes like A or G. A small number of bass players tune their instruments in fifths, like a cello but an octave lower (C–G–D–A). This tuning was used by jazz musician Red Mitchell and some classical players, including Joel Quarrington. Advocates of this tuning argue that it aligns with the tuning of other orchestral strings (violin, viola, cello) and provides a wider range of pitches. Some five-string bassists add a high E string, creating a tuning from lowest to highest: C–G–D–A–E. Others use a four-string instrument with G–D–A–E tuning, omitting the low C string but adding a high E. The Berlioz–Strauss Treatise on Instrumentation (1844) mentions that orchestras should include both four-string basses tuned in fourths and fifths to increase the orchestra’s sound.
In classical solo performances, the double bass is often tuned a whole tone higher (F♯–B–E–A). This is called "solo tuning," while the standard tuning is "orchestral tuning." Solo tuning strings are usually thinner and have less tension than orchestral strings, so they are often labeled separately. Some solo music is arranged for both solo and orchestral tunings. A less common tuning in Eastern Europe is A–D–G–C, which omits the low E string and adds a high C string.
Playing and performance considerations
Double bassists can stand or sit while playing the instrument. The height of the instrument is adjusted by changing the length of the endpin so the player can reach the strings easily with the bow or plucking hand. Some players who stand and use a bow set the endpin so their first finger reaches eye level when in a specific hand position. However, there is no single standard way to do this. Players who sit usually use a stool that is about the same height as the inseam of their trousers.
Traditionally, double bassists stood to perform solo music and sat when playing in an orchestra or opera pit. Today, it is rare for a player to be equally skilled in both positions. Some soloists sit, such as Joel Quarrington, Jeff Bradetich, and Thierry Barbé, while some orchestral bassists stand.
When playing high notes (above G3, the G below middle C), the player moves their hand from behind the neck and flattens it, using the side of the thumb to press the string. This technique, also used on the cello, is called thumb position. While using thumb position, most players do not use the fourth (little) finger because it is too weak to produce a clear sound. However, some modern music may require the use of this finger for complex chords or techniques.
The rockabilly style is physically demanding for the plucking hand because of the "slapping" technique used on the fingerboard. Playing the double bass is physically challenging because the strings are under high tension, and the spaces between notes on the fingerboard are large due to the instrument’s size. Players must stretch their fingers to reach notes in lower positions and shift positions often to play basslines. Like all non-fretted string instruments, bassists must learn to place their fingers precisely to play the correct pitch. Players with shorter arms or smaller hands may find it harder to reach notes in the lowest range, where the spaces between pitches are largest. However, techniques like thumb position and changes to the instrument, such as using lighter strings, have made playing the double bass easier.
Bass parts in music usually have fewer fast notes, double stops, or large jumps in pitch. These parts are often given to the cello section because the cello is smaller and better suited for these techniques.
Although the double bass is a large instrument, it is not as loud as many other instruments because of its low pitch. In large orchestras, four to eight bassists often play the same bassline together to create enough volume. Some orchestras may have up to ten or twelve bassists, but this is uncommon due to budget limits.
When composers write solo parts for the double bass in orchestral or chamber music, they usually keep the rest of the music quiet so the bass can be heard clearly. In classical music, amplification is rarely used, but sometimes a small amount of amplification called acoustic enhancement is used for bass solos with an orchestra. The use of microphones and amplifiers in classical music has caused debate, as some people believe the natural sound of instruments should not be changed.
In genres like jazz and blues, bassists use amplifiers and loudspeakers to make their sound louder. A piezoelectric pickup connects to the amplifier with a 1/4-inch cable. Bluegrass and jazz players typically use less amplification than blues, psychobilly, or jam band players. In these cases, the loud volume from other instruments can cause unwanted feedback, which is made worse by the bass’s large size. To solve this, some bassists use electronic devices to reduce feedback or play instruments like the electric upright bass, which has little or no soundbox to prevent feedback. Others lower their volume or move further from their amplifier to avoid feedback.
In rockabilly and psychobilly, slapping the strings against the fingerboard is an important part of the playing style. Since piezoelectric pickups do not capture the sound of slapping well, bassists in these genres often use both a piezoelectric pickup (for the low bass tone) and a small condenser microphone (to capture the slapping sound). These two sounds are combined using a mixer before being sent to the amplifier.
The double bass is large and fragile, making it hard to carry and transport. Most bassists use soft cases called gig bags to protect the instrument. These range from simple, thin cases for students to thick, padded cases for professionals. Some bassists carry their bow in a separate hard case, and more expensive cases have pockets for this. Players may also use a cart or wheels attached to the endpin to move the instrument. Some high-end cases have wheels or backpack straps for easier carrying.
Hard flight cases are strong cases made of materials like carbon fiber, graphite, fiberglass, or Kevlar. These cases are expensive and costly to ship, so they are usually only used by touring professionals.
Double bass players use various accessories to help them perform and practice. In orchestral music, three types of mutes are used: a wooden mute that slides onto the bridge, a rubber mute that attaches to the bridge, and a wire mute with brass weights that fits onto the bridge. Players use the mute when the instruction "con sordino" (with mute) appears in the music and remove it when "senza sordino" (without mute) is written. A mute makes the bass sound quieter, darker, and more somber. A heavy rubber mute is used for quiet practice, such as in a hotel room.
A quiver is a leather pouch that attaches to the bridge and tailpiece. It holds the bow when the player is playing pizzicato parts (plucking the strings).
A wolf tone eliminator is used to reduce unwanted vibrations that can cause a dissonant sound called a wolf tone. It consists of a rubber tube and a metal cylinder with a slot. The device is attached to the string using a screw and nut. Moving the cylinder along the string changes the frequency of the string, reducing the wolf tone. Wolf tones happen when the strings below the bridge vibrate at pitches close to notes being played, creating a dissonant sound.
Classical repertoire
The double bass as a solo instrument was popular during the 18th century, and many composers from that time wrote music for it. It was often called the Violone, and its tuning varied by region. One common tuning was the "Viennese tuning" (A1–D2–F♯2–A2). In some cases, an extra fifth or sixth string was added (F1–A1–D2–F♯2–A2). Leopold Mozart wrote about the five-string violone in his book Violinschule, saying it made difficult music easier to play and that he heard beautiful performances of concertos, trios, and solos.
The earliest known double bass concerto was written by Joseph Haydn around 1763, but it was lost in a fire. Carl Ditters von Dittersdorf composed two concertos and a Sinfonia Concertante for viola and double bass. Other composers from this time included Johann Baptist Wanhal, Franz Anton Hoffmeister, Leopold Kozeluch, Anton Zimmermann, Antonio Capuzzi, Wenzel Pichl, and Johannes Matthias Sperger. Although these composers were famous in their day, they are not well known today. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart’s concert aria, Per questa bella mano, includes challenging music for the double bass and is still popular with singers and bassists.
Over time, the double bass changed to meet the needs of orchestras, which required lower notes and a louder sound. In the mid-to-late 18th century, bassists like Josef Kämpfer, Friedrich Pischelberger, and Johannes Matthias Sperger used the "Viennese" tuning. Johann Hindle, who wrote a concerto for the double bass, introduced tuning the instrument in fourths, which changed how the double bass was used in solo performances. Domenico Dragonetti, a famous bassist, performed with Haydn and Beethoven. His playing was admired in Italy, Russia, and London. Beethoven may have been inspired by Dragonetti to write separate parts for the double bass in his symphonies, such as the third movement of the Fifth Symphony, the second movement of the Seventh Symphony, and the last movement of the Ninth Symphony. These parts did not copy the cello part.
Dragonetti wrote ten concertos and many solo works for bass and piano. In 1824, Rossini composed a duet for cello and double bass for Dragonetti and David Salomons. Dragonetti often used a three-string double bass tuned G–D–A. This tuning was popular in the 19th century because it reduced pressure on the instrument’s wooden top, creating a clearer sound, especially in the lower range. The thick gut strings used in the 19th century were hard to tune and play.
In the 19th century, Giovanni Bottesini, known as the "Paganini of the double bass," wrote concertos in the style of Italian opera. These pieces required fast, difficult playing and used the instrument’s highest notes, including harmonics. Many 19th- and early 20th-century bassists found these pieces too hard to play, but they are now performed more often. A Czech school of bassists, including Franz Simandl and Josef Hrabe, developed during this time. Their teaching methods are still used today.
In the early 20th century, Serge Koussevitzky, conductor of the Boston Symphony Orchestra, helped make the double bass a respected solo instrument. Improvements like steel strings and better setups allowed bassists to play at a higher level. Many composers wrote new works for the double bass in the mid-20th century, including Nikos Skalkottas, Eduard Tubin, Lars-Erik Larsson, Gunther Schuller, Hans Werner Henze, and Frank Proto.
John Cage included a solo for double bass in his Concert for Piano and Orchestra and in Atlas Eclipticalis. His other works, like Variations I and Fontana Mix, can also be played by a solo double bassist.
From the 1960s through the 1990s, Gary Karr promoted the double bass as a solo instrument and commissioned hundreds of new works. He played Koussevitzky’s famous bass for 40 years before giving it to the International Society of Bassists. Bertram Turetzky also commissioned and premiered over 300 double bass pieces.
In the 1970s and 1980s, new concertos included Nino Rota’s Divertimento, Alan Ridout’s concerto, Jean Françaix’s concerto, and Frank Proto’s Carmen Fantasy. In the 21st century, composers like Frank Proto, Kalevi Aho, and John Harbison wrote new concertos.
Reinhold Glière, Paul Hindemith, Frank Proto, and Mieczysław Weinberg wrote sonatas and other pieces for double bass and piano. Giacinto Scelsi composed Nuits and Maknongan for double bass and other low-voiced instruments.
Use in jazz
Beginning around 1890, early New Orleans jazz groups played a mix of marches, ragtime, and Dixieland music. These groups started as marching bands, with a tuba or sousaphone (or sometimes a bass saxophone) providing the low, steady rhythm. As jazz music moved into bars and brothels, the upright bass gradually replaced these wind instruments by the 1920s. Many early bass players played both the brass bass (tuba) and the string bass, as these instruments were often called at the time. Bassists used improvised "walking" bass lines—patterns based on scales and chords that followed the music’s harmony.
Because an upright bass without amplification is usually the quietest instrument in a jazz band, many players in the 1920s and 1930s used a technique called the slap style. This involved slapping and pulling the strings to create a rhythmic "slap" sound on the fingerboard. The slap style helped the bass be heard more clearly over the other instruments and worked better on early sound recordings, which had trouble capturing low frequencies. For more about the slap style, see the section on Modern playing styles below.
Jazz bass players are expected to create their own accompaniment lines or solos based on a given chord progression. They must also know the rhythmic patterns used in different styles, such as Afro-Cuban music. In big bands, bassists must read written bass lines, as some arrangements include specific parts for the bass.
Many upright bass players have shaped the development of jazz. For example, Jimmy Blanton, who played with Duke Ellington, and Oscar Pettiford, who helped introduce the upright bass in bebop music, were important during the swing era. Paul Chambers, who worked with Miles Davis on the famous Kind of Blue album, was one of the first jazz bassists to play bebop solos using a bow. Terry Plumeri advanced the use of arco (bowed) solos, achieving a clear, vocal-like tone, while Charlie Haden, best known for his work with Ornette Coleman, defined the bass’s role in Free Jazz.
Other important bassists include Ray Brown, Slam Stewart, and Niels-Henning Ørsted Pedersen, who played key roles in jazz history. Slam Stewart, popular among bebop musicians, used a bow and hummed octaves during his solos. Charles Mingus was both a respected composer and a bassist known for his skill and powerful sound. Scott LaFaro changed how bassists played by focusing on interactive, conversational melodies instead of traditional "walking" lines. Since the 1950s, when bass amplifiers became available, jazz bassists have used amplification to increase the instrument’s volume.
Although electric bass guitars were used in jazz as early as 1951, they became more common in the 1970s. Bassists like Bob Cranshaw, who played with Sonny Rollins, and fusion pioneers Jaco Pastorius and Stanley Clarke began using bass guitars instead of upright basses. However, except for styles like jazz fusion and Latin-influenced jazz, the upright bass remains the main instrument for bass parts in jazz. The upright bass has a unique sound compared to the fretted bass guitar because its strings are not stopped by metal frets, allowing for a continuous range of tones on the fingerboard. Unlike the bass guitar, which relies on electronic amplification of string vibrations, the upright bass produces sound through natural acoustic reverberation.
Examples of the upright bass’s sound and technical use in jazz can be heard on recordings such as Emerald Tears (1978) by Dave Holland or Emergence (1986) by Miroslav Vitouš. Holland also recorded an album titled Music from Two Basses (1971), where he plays with Barre Phillips and sometimes switches to cello.
Use in bluegrass and country
The string bass is the most common bass instrument in bluegrass music. It is usually plucked, though some modern bluegrass bassists also use a bow. The bluegrass bassist is part of the rhythm section, which keeps the music moving with a steady beat. This beat can be fast or slow and follows patterns like 4/4 or 4/4 time. The bass also helps create the harmony by supporting the chord progression. Brands like Engelhardt-Link (formerly Kay) have been popular choices for bluegrass bassists for many years. Most bluegrass bassists use the 3⁄4 size bass, but some also use full-size or 5⁄8 size basses.
Before bluegrass music became popular, traditional music often used the cello. Natalie Haas, a cellist, explains that old photos and recordings show American string bands with cello players. However, the cello became more associated with orchestras and was less common in folk music. The cello returned to bluegrass in the 1990s and early 2000s. Some modern bluegrass bands use the electric bass because it is easier to carry than the large upright bass. However, the upright bass has a different sound. Many musicians believe the upright bass has a slower, more natural sound, especially when gut strings are used.
In bluegrass music, common rhythms involve plucking on beats 1 and 3 in 4/4 time, beats 1 and 2 in 4/4 time, or the downbeat in 3/4 time (waltz time). Bluegrass bass lines are usually simple, focusing on the root and fifth of each chord. Exceptions include playing a "walkup" or "walkdown," where the bassist plays every beat for one or two bars during a chord change. If a bassist has a solo, they might play a walking bass line with a note on every beat or use a pattern based on a five-note scale.
Howard Watts, also known as Cedric Rainwater, was an early bluegrass bassist who played with Bill Monroe’s Blue Grass Boys starting in 1944. Classical bassist Edgar Meyer has played in many genres, including newgrass and jazz. Barry Bales, a bassist with Union Station, said in 2005 that his favorite bluegrass bassist is Todd Phillips, who brought a new way of thinking about bluegrass music.
The upright bass was the standard instrument in traditional country western music. While it is still used sometimes in country music, the electric bass has mostly replaced it, especially in pop-influenced styles from the 1990s and 2000s, such as new country.
Slap-style bass is sometimes used in bluegrass. When a bassist pulls a string until it hits the fingerboard or hits the strings against the fingerboard, it creates a high-pitched, percussive sound that sounds like a tap dancer’s clacks. This technique is sometimes controversial in bluegrass. Mike Bub, a slap-style expert, advises against using it in every performance or song. Many bluegrass bassists use less slap on recordings than in live shows. Jerry McCoury and his student Mike Bub rarely use slap bass on recordings. Some bassists, like Jack Cook, use slap on fast songs, while others, such as Gene Libbea and Barry Bales, rarely use it.
Mark Schatz, a bluegrass bassist who teaches slap bass in his DVD, says slap bass is not common in traditional bluegrass music. He notes that slap bass appears only occasionally in recordings and is more often used in live performances for solos or to highlight specific parts of a song. Another bluegrass method book, Learn to Play Bluegrass Bass by Earl Gately, also teaches slap bass techniques. German bassist Didi Beck plays rapid triplet slaps, as shown in a video.
Use in popular music
In the early 1950s, the upright bass was the main bass instrument in the new style of rock and roll music. Marshall Lytle of Bill Haley & His Comets was one example of a musician who played this instrument. In the 1940s, a new type of dance music called rhythm and blues began to develop. This style combined parts of older blues and swing music. Louis Jordan, who was the first person to innovate this style, used an upright bass in his group, the Tympany Five.
The upright bass was an important part of pop music groups throughout the 1950s. Rock and roll music was heavily influenced by rhythm and blues, as well as jazz, country, and bluegrass. However, upright bass players faced challenges when using their instruments in these settings. They had to compete with loud horn instruments and later electric guitars, which made the bass parts hard to hear. The upright bass is difficult to amplify in loud concert settings because it can produce loud, unwanted noises called feedback. Also, the upright bass is large and hard to transport, which made it difficult for touring bands to move. In some groups, the slap bass was used as a percussion instrument instead of a drummer. This was the case with Bill Haley & His Saddlemen, the earlier group of the Comets, which did not use drummers on recordings or live performances until late 1952. Before that, the slap bass was used for percussion, including in recordings such as Haley's versions of "Rock the Joint" and "Rocket 88."
In 1951, Leo Fender introduced the Precision Bass, the first commercially successful electric bass guitar. The electric bass was easier to amplify because it had built-in magnetic pickups. It was also easier to carry, as it was less than a foot longer than an electric guitar. The metal frets on the electric bass made it simpler to play in tune compared to the upright bass. In the 1960s and 1970s, bands played louder music in bigger venues. The electric bass could produce the powerful, amplified sound needed for this era, and the upright bass became less common in popular music.
The upright bass returned to popular music in the mid-1980s, partly because of renewed interest in older folk and country music styles, as part of roots rock and Americana trends. In the 1990s, improvements in pickups and amplifier designs for electro-acoustic upright and horizontal basses made it easier for bassists to get a clear amplified sound from acoustic instruments. Some popular bands, such as the Barenaked Ladies, chose to use the upright bass instead of the electric bass. A trend for "unplugged" performances on MTV, where rock bands used only acoustic instruments, also increased public interest in the upright bass and acoustic bass guitars.
Jim Creeggan of Barenaked Ladies mainly plays the upright bass, though he has increasingly used the electric bass over time. Chris Wyse of the alternative rock group Owl uses both electric and double bass. Athol Guy of the Australian folk/pop group The Seekers plays the upright bass. Shannon Birchall of the Australian folk-rock group the John Butler Trio uses the upright bass extensively, performing long live solos in songs like "Betterman." On the 2008 album In Ear Park by the indie/pop band Department of Eagles, a bowed upright bass is featured prominently in the songs "Teenagers" and "In Ear Park." The Norwegian ompa-rock band Kaizers Orchestra uses the upright bass exclusively in both live performances and recordings.
The French contemporary pop duo "What a Day" uses extended pizzicato techniques on the double bass with vocals and a typewriter. Hank Williams III's bass players, including Jason Brown, Joe Buck, and Zach Shedd, used upright basses for recordings and live performances during the country and Hellbilly sets of Hank III's shows before switching to electric bass for the Assjack set.
The late 1970s rockabilly-punk genre of psychobilly continued and expanded the rockabilly tradition of slap bass. Bassists such as Kim Nekroman and Geoff Kresge developed the ability to play fast slap bass, making the bass function like a percussion instrument.
Modern playing styles
In popular music, the bass instrument is often played with amplification and almost always plucked using the fingers, a method called pizzicato. The way players use pizzicato can vary depending on the musician and the type of music. Some players use the sides of one, two, or three fingers to pluck the strings, especially for slow, melodic pieces, because this method is said to create a stronger and more solid sound. Others use the tips of their fingers for faster, more complex parts or for quieter songs. Amplification helps the player control the instrument’s sound because amplifiers have controls that adjust different frequencies. These controls allow the bassist to increase the volume of low sounds while reducing the volume of high sounds, which can help minimize unwanted finger noise.
An unamplified acoustic bass has a limited range of sound because its hollow body can only naturally produce certain frequencies. Lower pitches may not be as loud as higher pitches. When amplified, the bassist can increase the volume of low frequencies, changing how the instrument sounds. Amplification also helps the instrument’s notes last longer, which is helpful for playing slow, melodic parts or holding notes during solos.
In traditional jazz, swing, polka, rockabilly, and psychobilly music, the bass is sometimes played using a technique called slap style. This involves quickly slapping the strings against the fingerboard between notes, creating a drum-like sound. The main notes are either plucked normally or pulled away from the fingerboard and released, making a sharp, percussive sound. Some skilled players use multiple slaps between notes, creating complex, rhythmic patterns.
The slap style may have influenced electric bass guitar players. Starting in the mid-1960s, musicians like Larry Graham of Sly and the Family Stone developed a technique called "slap and pop." This uses the thumb to hit the string, creating a slapping sound, and the index or middle finger to pull the string back, making a popping sound. In some recordings, bassist James Jamerson used a double bass alongside an electric bass to enhance the sound during post-production.
Double bassists
- Domenico Dragonetti (1763–1846) Virtuoso, composer, conductor
- Giovanni Bottesini (1821–1889) Virtuoso, composer, conductor
- Franz Simandl (1840–1912) Virtuoso, composer, pedagogue
- Édouard Nanny (1872–1943) Virtuoso, composer
- Serge Koussevitzky (1874–1951) Virtuoso, composer, conductor
- François Rabbath (1931–) Virtuoso, composer
- Gary Karr (1941–2025) Virtuoso
- Edgar Meyer (1960– ) Virtuoso, composer, teacher
Some of the most influential contemporary classical double bass players are known for their teaching as well as their performance skills. For example, American bassist Oscar G. Zimmerman (1910–1987) taught at the Eastman School of Music and at the Interlochen National Music Camp in Michigan for 44 summers. French bassist François Rabbath (born 1931) created a new method that divided the entire fingerboard into six positions. Bassists known for their solo skills include American teacher and performer Gary Karr (1941–2025), Finnish composer Teppo Hauta-aho (born 1941), Italian composer Fernando Grillo, and American player-composer Edgar Meyer. For a longer list, see the List of contemporary classical double bass players.
Notable jazz bassists from the 1940s to the 1950s include Jimmy Blanton (1918–1942), who played with the Duke Ellington Swing band before his death from tuberculosis and introduced new melodic and harmonic ideas for the instrument. Ray Brown (1926–2002) supported musicians like Dizzy Gillespie, Oscar Peterson, Art Tatum, and Charlie Parker and was part of the Modern Jazz Quartet. Ron Carter (born 1937), a hard bop bassist, appeared on 3,500 albums, making him one of the most-recorded bassists in jazz history, including recordings with Thelonious Monk, Wes Montgomery, and Blue Note Records artists. Paul Chambers (1935–1969) was part of the Miles Davis Quintet, including the landmark recording Kind of Blue, and was known for his skilled improvisations.
The experimental post-1960s era, including free jazz and jazz-rock fusion, produced influential bassists. Charles Mingus (1922–1979), who was also a composer and bandleader, blended hard bop with gospel, free jazz, and classical music. Charlie Haden (1937–2014), a free jazz and post-bop bassist, worked with saxophonist Ornette Coleman and was part of the Liberation Music Orchestra. Eddie Gómez and George Mraz, who played with Bill Evans and Oscar Peterson, respectively, advanced expectations for pizzicato fluency and melodic phrasing. Stanley Clarke (born 1951), a fusion virtuoso, is known for his skill on both the upright and electric bass. Terry Plumeri is noted for his horn-like arco fluency and vocal-sounding tone.
In the 1990s and early 21st century, Christian McBride (born 1972), one of the new "young lions," performed with musicians like McCoy Tyner, Herbie Hancock, and Chick Corea and released albums such as Vertical Vision (2003). Another notable bassist is Esperanza Spalding (born 1984), who won a Grammy for Best New Artist at age 27.
Edgar Meyer is also known in bluegrass and newgrass circles. Todd Phillips is another prominent bluegrass player. Well-known rockabilly bassists include Bill Black, Marshall Lytle (with Bill Haley & His Comets), and Lee Rocker (with the Stray Cats).
Notable rockabilly revivalists and psychobilly performers from the 1990s and early 21st century include Scott Owen (from The Living End), Jimbo Wallace (from Reverend Horton Heat), Kim Nekroman (Nekromantix), Patricia Day (HorrorPops), and Geoff Kresge (Tiger Army, ex-AFI). Willie Dixon (1915–1992) was a key figure in rhythm and blues. In addition to being an upright bassist, he wrote many R&B hits and produced music. He also played bass on Chuck Berry’s rock and roll songs. Rockabilly bands like El Rio Trio (from the Netherlands) also use the double bass in their music. See also the List of double bassists in popular music.
Pedagogy and training
The way people teach and train double bass players differs based on the type of music and the country. In classical music, teaching methods for the double bass have been around for hundreds of years. These methods include books, practice exercises, and lessons that help students build strength and accuracy in their left hand and control in their right hand when using a bow. Teaching styles vary by country, with some European countries, like France and Germany, linked to specific methods, such as the Édouard Nanny method and the Franz Simandl method. In classical training, most right-hand lessons focus on creating good bowing sounds, while less time is spent learning how to pluck the strings in different ways.
In contrast, music styles that mainly use plucking, such as jazz and blues, spend more time teaching how to pluck the strings in various ways for different musical styles. For example, in jazz, students learn to pluck the strings using the sides of their fingers for deep, full sounds in slow songs, the tips of their fingers for fast, rhythmic lines, and special techniques to create short, percussive sounds.
Classical and jazz music have the most developed and detailed training systems. In classical music, children can start taking private lessons and playing in youth orchestras. Teens who want to become professional classical bassists can continue their training in colleges, conservatories, or universities. Colleges offer certificates and diplomas in bass performance.
Conservatories, which are common in France and Quebec, Canada, provide lessons and opportunities to play in amateur orchestras. Universities offer programs that lead to bachelor’s degrees, master’s degrees, and doctorates in double bass performance. Other training options include summer camps and festivals where students can play a wide range of music.
A bachelor’s degree in bass performance (B.Mus. or B.M.) takes four years and includes lessons, orchestra experience, and courses in music history, theory, and other subjects like English. Students often perform solo recitals featuring classical pieces.
A master’s degree (M.Mus. or M.M.) includes private lessons, ensemble experience, and courses in music history and theory. It also requires solo recitals. A master’s degree is often needed to teach double bass at a university or conservatory.
A Doctor of Musical Arts (D.M.A.) degree is the highest level of training, requiring about 54 additional credits beyond a master’s degree. Admission is very selective, and students must pass exams in music history, theory, and perform recitals. They also complete a doctoral dissertation and give a lecture-recital.
In the early days of jazz, double bass players often learned informally or through classical training, like Ron Carter and Charles Mingus. In the 1980s and 1990s, colleges began offering degrees in jazz performance. Jazz students take individual lessons, play in small groups and big bands, and study music history and theory focused on jazz eras like Swing, Bebop, and fusion. They also learn how to improvise and accompany other musicians. Jazz summer camps and festivals help students develop new skills.
In other genres, such as blues, rockabilly, and psychobilly, training is less formal. There are no degrees in blues bass performance or conservatories that teach rockabilly bass. However, books, DVDs, and private lessons are available. Some blues or rockabilly bassists may have learned through classical or jazz training. In genres like tango, which use both bowed and plucked styles, bassists often come from classical or jazz backgrounds.
Careers
Careers for double bass players differ based on the type of music and the area where they live. Most bassists work by performing and teaching. To get performance jobs, bassists usually play at an audition. In some music styles, like jazz bands, they might be asked to read music quickly or play familiar songs, such as "Now's the Time," with a group. In rock or blues bands, they may be asked to play well-known songs from those genres. An upright bassist trying out for a blues band might be asked to play a swinging rhythm, a fast "slapping" style (where the strings are hit against the neck), and a slow, emotional song from the 1950s. In pop or rock music, a bassist might need to sing harmony parts to support the main singer. In some groups, bassists may also play other instruments like electric bass, keyboards, or acoustic guitar when needed. Playing electric bass is often required in country bands, especially when performing classic rock or new country songs.
In classical music, bassists audition for jobs in orchestras or to join university or Conservatory programs. During a classical audition, the performer usually plays a section from a J.S. Bach cello suite or a part from a bass concerto. They also play challenging sections from orchestral music. Common pieces requested at auditions include parts from Beethoven's Symphonies Nos. 5, 7, and 9; Strauss's Ein Heldenleben and Don Juan; Mozart's Symphonies Nos. 35, 39, and 40; Brahms's Symphonies Nos. 1 and 2; Stravinsky's Pulcinella; Shostakovich's Symphony No. 5; Ginastera's Variaciones Concertante; Tchaikovsky's Symphony No. 4; Mahler's Symphony No. 2; J.S. Bach's Suite No. 2 in B; Berlioz's Symphonie Fantastique; Mendelssohn's Symphony No. 4; and bass solos from Verdi's Otello, Mahler's Symphony No. 1, Britten's The Young Person's Guide to the Orchestra, and Prokofiev's Lieutenant Kije Suite.