The double bass, also called the upright bass, acoustic bass, bull fiddle, Bass Fiddle, string bass, or simply the bass, is the largest and lowest-pitched string instrument in the modern symphony orchestra (except for rare instruments like the octobass). It has four or five strings and is built between the styles of the gamba (viol) and the violin family.
The bass is a regular part of the orchestra’s string section, which includes violins, violas, and cellos, as well as the concert band. It appears in concertos, solo performances, and chamber music in Western classical music. It is also used in many other genres, such as jazz, blues, rock and roll, rockabilly, country music, bluegrass, tango, folk music, and some film and video game soundtracks.
Experts are still unsure about the exact origin of the double bass, with some believing it came from the viol family and others from the violin family.
As a transposing instrument, the bass is usually written one octave higher than its actual pitch to avoid using too many lines below the musical staff. The double bass is the only modern bowed string instrument tuned in fourths, like a bass guitar or the lowest four strings of a standard guitar, rather than fifths. Its strings are typically tuned to E1, A1, D2, and G2.
The double bass can be played by drawing a bow across the strings (arco), plucking the strings (pizzicato), or slapping the strings for certain rock and roll and rockabilly styles. In orchestral music and tango, both arco and pizzicato are used. In jazz, blues, and rockabilly, pizzicato is most common. Classical music, jazz, and traditional bluegrass rely on the instrument’s natural sound. In funk, blues, reggae, and similar genres, the double bass is often amplified to make its sound louder.
Terminology
A person who plays this instrument is called a "bassist," "double bassist," "double bass player," "contrabassist," "contrabass player," or "bass player." The terms "contrabass" and "double bass" describe the instrument's range and its role in music. The "double bass" originally played the same notes as the cello, which was the main bass line. Later, it developed its own unique parts. In classical music, the instrument is also called "contrabass," which comes from its Italian name, "contrabbasso." It may also be called "string bass" to differentiate it from brass instruments like tubas in a concert band, or simply "bass."
In jazz, blues, rockabilly, and other non-classical music styles, the instrument is often called the "upright bass," "standup bass," or "acoustic bass." These names help distinguish it from the electric bass guitar. In folk and bluegrass music, it is sometimes called a "bass fiddle" or "bass violin," though these terms are less commonly used. Unlike the violin family, the upright bass has a different structure from the acoustic bass guitar. The acoustic bass guitar is based on the electric bass guitar and is built like a larger version of an older instrument called the viola de gamba.
The double bass is sometimes mistakenly called the "violone," "bass violin," or "bass viol."
Description
A typical double bass is about 180 cm (6 feet) tall from the scroll to the endpin. The traditional "full-size" (4⁄4 size) bass averages 74.8 inches (190 cm), while the more commonly used 3⁄4 size bass averages 71.6 inches (182 cm). The 3⁄4 size is now the most popular among musicians, including those in orchestras. Other sizes, such as 1⁄2 or 1⁄4, are also available to fit a player’s height and hand size. These size names do not mean the actual size compared to a full-size bass. For example, a 1⁄2 size bass is not half the length of a 4⁄4 bass but is about 15% shorter.
Double basses are usually made from different types of wood. The back is often made of maple, the top from spruce, and the fingerboard from ebony. It is unclear if the double bass evolved from the viola da gamba or the violin, but it is traditionally grouped with the violin family. Although the double bass shares similar construction with other violin family instruments, it also has features found in the older viol family.
The standard open strings on a double bass are E1, A1, D2, and G2, the same as on an acoustic or electric bass guitar. However, the double bass has a richer tone because of the wood’s resonance, its violin-like structure, and its long scale length. It can also be played with a bow, unlike the bass guitar. The fretless fingerboard allows for smooth glissandos and legatos, which are difficult to achieve on a fretted instrument like the bass guitar.
Playing style
The double bass is played in the same way as other violin and viol-family string instruments, either with a bow (arco) or by plucking the strings (pizzicato). When using a bow, the player can use it in the traditional way or strike the string with the wood of the bow. In orchestral music and tango, both arco and pizzicato are used. In jazz, blues, and rockabilly, pizzicato is most common, except for some solos or special parts in modern jazz that require bowing.
When the lowest notes of the double bass are played with a bow and played very loudly, they create a dark, heavy, or powerful sound. The same low notes played very softly can produce a rich, mellow sound. Classical bass students learn bowing techniques used by other string players, such as violinists and cellists. These techniques include détaché, legato, staccato, sforzato, martelé, sul ponticello, sul tasto, tremolo, spiccato, and sautillé. Some techniques can be combined, such as sul ponticello and tremolo, which can create eerie, ghostly sounds. In orchestras, classical bassists play pizzicato parts, but these parts usually include simple notes (quarter notes, half notes, whole notes) rather than fast, complex passages.
Classical bass players use vibrato, which is created by moving the left hand finger on the string, to add expression to their playing. Vibrato is used to make music sound more emotional. In general, very loud, low notes are played with little or no vibrato because the goal is to provide a clear, strong foundation for the string section. Mid- and high notes are usually played with more vibrato. The speed and strength of vibrato change depending on the performer to create different musical effects.
In jazz, rockabilly, and similar genres, pizzicato is the main way of playing. In jazz and jump blues, bassists often play fast, continuous pizzicato basslines for long periods. Jazz and rockabilly bassists develop advanced pizzicato techniques to play fast solos with quick triplet and sixteenth note patterns. Pizzicato basslines played by professional jazz musicians are more complex than those found in classical orchestral music, which typically include whole notes, half notes, quarter notes, and occasional eighth notes. In jazz and related styles, bassists often add "ghost notes" to their playing to enhance rhythm and create fills in the bassline.
The double bass player stands or sits on a high stool and leans the instrument against their body, turning it slightly inward so the strings are easy to reach. This playing position is why the double bass has sloped shoulders, which make it different from other violin-family instruments. The narrower shoulders help players reach the higher strings more easily.
History
The double bass is considered a modern version of the violone, a large string instrument from the viol family that first appeared in Europe during the 15th century. Before the 20th century, many double basses had only three strings, unlike the five to six strings of viol family instruments or the four strings of violin family instruments. The double bass has a different shape compared to the violin and cello. For example, it is deeper, meaning the distance from front to back is much greater than on a violin. While the violin has rounded shoulders, most double basses have shoulders with a steeper slope, similar to viol family instruments. Many old double basses had their shoulders altered to make them easier to play with modern techniques. Before these changes, their shoulder design was more like that of violin family instruments.
The double bass is the only modern bowed string instrument tuned in fourths, like a viol, instead of fifths. The instrument’s exact history is still debated, and it is not certain whether the double bass is directly related to the viol family.
In A New History of the Double Bass, Paul Brun claims the double bass originated as the lowest-pitched instrument in the violin family. He explains that although the double bass looks similar to the viola da gamba, its internal structure is nearly the same as violin family instruments and very different from viol family instruments.
Larry Hurst, a double bass professor, argues that the modern double bass does not belong to either the violin or viol families. He suggests the double bass likely first resembled the violone, the largest viol family instrument. Some of the earliest surviving double basses are violones that have been modified with modern features. For example, instruments made by Gasparo da Salò were originally 16th-century six-string contrabass violoni that were later changed.
Design
The double bass has two main design shapes: the violin form (shown in the labeled picture in the construction section) and the viola da gamba form (shown in the header picture of this article). A third, less common design is the busetto shape, and an even rarer one is the guitar or pear shape. The back of the instrument can be round and carved, like a violin, or flat and angled, like the viol family.
The double bass has parts similar to the violin family, such as a wooden, carved bridge to hold the strings, two f-holes, a tailpiece where the string ends are attached (secured around the endpin mount), an ornamental scroll near the pegbox, a nut with grooves for the strings at the junction of the fingerboard and pegbox, and a thick sound post that sends vibrations from the top of the instrument to the hollow body and supports string tension. Unlike other violin family instruments, the double bass shows influences from the viol family, especially the violone, the largest and lowest-pitched viol. For example, the double bass is tuned in fourths, like a viol, instead of fifths, which is standard for violins. The shoulders of the double bass meet the neck in a curve, unlike the sharp angle on violins. The bridge of the double bass is curved, like on bowed instruments, to allow players to bow individual strings. A flat bridge would make it impossible to bow the A and D strings separately.
The double bass also has sloped shoulders and an angled back, which help players reach the upper part of the instrument. It always has machine tuners, unlike the violin family, which uses wooden friction pegs. Because there is no standard design, double basses can look and sound very different from one another.
The double bass is most similar to violins but shares some features with the violone. Unlike the violone, the double bass has no frets on its fingerboard and fewer strings (the violone usually had six strings). High-quality fingerboards are made of ebony, while less expensive ones may use other woods painted black (a process called "ebonizing"). The fingerboard is curved to allow the bow to align with individual strings. The bass fingerboard is slightly flattened under the E string, a feature called a Romberg bevel. Most fingerboards cannot be adjusted by the player; only a luthier can make changes. A few expensive professional basses have adjustable fingerboards with a screw mechanism.
A key difference between the double bass and other violin family instruments is the tuning mechanism. Violins, violas, and cellos use friction pegs, while the double bass uses metal machine heads with gears. Turning the key on a double bass tightens or loosens the string, changing its pitch. This design eliminates the need for fine tuners on the tailpiece, though some bassists use them for instruments with a low C extension. The endpin, a metal rod with a spiked or rubberized tip at the bottom of the double bass, is thicker and stronger than a cello’s endpin because the double bass is heavier.
Professional double basses are often made from maple (back, neck, ribs), spruce (top), and ebony (fingerboard, tailpiece). The tailpiece may be made from other materials. Less expensive basses use laminated (plywood) wood for tops, backs, and ribs or hybrid models with laminated backs and carved tops. Some modern basses are made of willow, fiberglass, or carbon fiber.
Laminated basses are popular in schools, youth orchestras, and genres like rockabilly, blues, and folk because they are durable and resistant to humidity and heat. Hybrid basses, with laminated backs and carved tops, are less expensive and more durable than fully carved basses.
Inside the double bass, the soundpost and bass bar are important parts. The soundpost is held in place by string tension, not glue. If it falls out, a luthier must replace it using tools inserted into the f-holes. The exact placement of the soundpost is crucial for the instrument’s sound. Bridges on student instruments may be simple, while professional ones are ornately carved. Some professional basses have adjustable bridges with a metal screw mechanism to change string height based on humidity or temperature.
Mechanism of sound production
Because the strings are small, they don't move much air and cannot make much sound by themselves. The energy from the strings' vibrations must be passed to the air around them. To do this, the strings cause the bridge to vibrate, and the bridge then vibrates the top surface of the bass. The bridge changes the vibrations from high force with small movement to lower force with larger movement on the top of the bass body. The top is connected to the back of the bass by a sound post, so the back also vibrates. Both the top and back help send the vibrations into the air, allowing the sound from the strings to travel more easily into the surrounding space.
Specific sound and tone production mechanism
The acoustic bass does not have frets, which are the raised lines on the neck of some string instruments. When the strings are plucked or bowed, they vibrate against the fingerboard near where the fingers are placed. This vibration creates a buzzing sound. This buzzing sound helps give the note its unique quality.
Pitch
The lowest note of a double bass is an E1 (about 41 Hz) or a C1 (≈33 Hz), or sometimes a B0 (≈31 Hz), depending on whether the instrument has four or five strings. This is within about an octave above the lowest sound most people can hear clearly. The highest note on the fingerboard is usually near D5, which is two octaves and a fifth above the open G2 string, as shown in the range illustration at the beginning of this article. Notes beyond the end of the fingerboard can be played by gently pulling the string to the side.
In some symphony parts, double bass players are asked to play harmonics (also called flageolet tones), where the string is lightly touched—not pressed down—and then plucked or bowed. Bowed harmonics are used in modern music for their bright, glassy sound. Natural harmonics and artificial harmonics, where the thumb stops the string and the harmonic is created by touching the string at specific points, allow the instrument to reach higher notes. These techniques are often used in advanced concertos for the double bass.
In classical orchestral music, double bass parts rarely require notes higher than a two-octave and a minor third range, from E1 to G3, with occasional A3 notes. An exception is Orff’s Carmina Burana, which requires three octaves and a perfect fourth. Modern orchestral parts, such as Prokofiev’s Lieutenant Kijé Suite (1933), sometimes ask for notes as high as D4 and E♭4. The highest notes a skilled player can reach using harmonics depend on their ability. The high note shown in the range illustration is an example, not a strict rule.
Five-string double basses have an extra string, usually tuned to a low B (B0) below the E string. Rarely, a higher string may be added, tuned to a C above the G string (C3). Four-string instruments sometimes include a C extension, allowing the E string to play down to C1 (or B0).
Traditionally, the double bass is a transposing instrument. Since much of its range is below the standard bass clef, music is written an octave higher than it sounds to avoid using too many ledger lines below the staff. When double bass players and cellists perform from combined parts, as in some Mozart and Haydn symphonies, they play in octaves, with the basses an octave lower than the cellos. This transposition applies even when using tenor or treble clefs, which are used for solo parts and some orchestral music. The tenor clef is also used for cello and low brass parts to avoid too many ledger lines above the staff. Other notation traditions exist, such as Italian solo music, which is written at the actual pitch, and the older German method, where music was written an octave lower except in the treble clef.
Tuning
The double bass is usually tuned in fourths, unlike other string instruments in the orchestra, which are tuned in fifths. For example, a violin’s strings are tuned from lowest to highest as G–D–A–E. The standard tuning for the double bass, from lowest to highest, is E–A–D–G, starting with the E below the second-lowest C (concert pitch). This is the same tuning as a bass guitar and is one octave lower than the four lowest strings of a standard guitar. Before the 19th century, some double basses had three strings to reduce tension, which helped create a better solo tone and louder sound. Giovanni Bottesini, a famous musician from 1821 to 1889, preferred the three-string instrument popular in Italy because it was considered more resonant. Some traditional music groups in Catalonia still use three-string double basses tuned A–D–G.
In classical music, some notes are lower than the standard range of a double bass. Notes below low E appear often in arrangements of Baroque music. During the Classical era, the double bass usually played the cello part an octave lower, sometimes requiring notes as low as C. In the Romantic era and 20th century, composers like Wagner, Mahler, Busoni, and Prokofiev also wrote parts with notes below low E.
To play these low notes, musicians can use several methods. Players with standard four-string basses (E–A–D–G) may play the notes below E an octave higher or transpose the entire passage up an octave if needed. They can also tune the lowest E string down to D or C. Some four-string basses have a "low-C extension," which adds extra length to the fingerboard for lower notes. Another option is using a five-string bass, with the fifth string tuned to C or, more commonly today, B, which is three octaves and a semitone below middle C. Many European orchestras use five-string basses.
Most professional orchestral players use four-string double basses with a "C extension." This is an extra section of fingerboard attached to the head of the bass, allowing the lowest string to be tuned down to C, an octave below the lowest note on a cello. Occasionally, the lowest string may be tuned to B, as some orchestral pieces require this note, such as Respighi’s The Pines of Rome. Some players use a "low B extension" for even lower notes.
There are different types of extensions. The simplest version has no mechanical parts except a locking nut or "gate" for the E note. To play the extended notes, the musician reaches under the scroll to press the string against the fingerboard. This method allows for adjusting the pitch of notes but can be difficult when switching quickly between low and regular notes.
Another method uses wooden "fingers" or "gates" that press the string down to play specific notes like C♯, D, E♭, or E. This is helpful for repeated low notes, such as a low D. A more complex system uses mechanical levers, similar to those on a bassoon, to press the strings. These systems can lock notes in place but may create clicking sounds.
Once a mechanical aid is locked in place, it is harder to make small pitch adjustments or glide between notes, which is possible with the hand-fingered method.
Five-string basses, which usually have the lowest string tuned to B, can use a two-semitone extension for a low A or a rare low G extension.
A few musicians tune their double basses in fifths, like a cello but an octave lower (C–G–D–A). This tuning was used by jazz musician Red Mitchell and some classical players, such as Joel Quarrington. Supporters say this matches the tuning of other orchestral strings (violin, viola, cello), creating a unified approach. Fifth tuning gives a wider range than standard tuning (C to A without an extension). Some five-string bassists add a high E string (C–G–D–A–E), while others use a four-string bass with G–D–A–E tuning for solo performances. The Berlioz–Strauss Treatise on Instrumentation (1844) suggested having some double basses tuned in fifths and others in fourths to increase the orchestra’s sound.
In classical solo performances, the double bass is often tuned a whole tone higher (F♯–B–E–A), called "solo tuning." Solo strings are thinner and lighter than regular strings. Modern strings are labeled for either solo or orchestral tuning. Some historical solo music uses a tuning that goes up a minor third instead of a whole tone. Popular pieces like the Koussevitsky Concerto are available in both tunings. Solo strings can be tuned down for orchestral use, but they may not project well or stay in tune.
A rare tuning used in some Eastern European countries is A–D–G–C, omitting the low E string and adding a high C string. The tololoche in Mexico (a sma
Playing and performance considerations
Double bassists may stand or sit while playing. The height of the instrument is adjusted using the endpin so the player can reach the strings with the bow or plucking hand. Bassists who stand and use a bow sometimes set the endpin so their first finger is level with their eyes, though there is no strict rule for this. Players who sit usually use a stool about the same height as their inseam measurement.
Traditionally, double bassists stood for solo performances and sat in orchestras or opera pits. Today, most players specialize in one position, though some soloists sit and some orchestral players stand.
When playing high notes (above G3, the G below middle C), the player moves their hand from behind the neck and keeps it flat, using the side of the thumb to press the string. This technique, also used on the cello, is called thumb position. Few players use their fourth finger in thumb position because it is often too weak to produce a clear sound, though some modern music may require it.
Rockabilly style requires strong plucking skills because of the "slapping" technique used on the fingerboard. Playing the bass is physically demanding due to the high string tension and large spaces between notes on the fingerboard. Players must stretch their fingers to reach notes in lower positions and shift positions often. Like other non-fretted string instruments, bassists must place their fingers precisely to play the correct pitch. Shorter arms or smaller hands may make playing the lowest notes more challenging. However, techniques like thumb position and lighter strings have made the instrument easier to play.
Bass parts in music usually have fewer fast notes, double stops, or large jumps in pitch. These parts are often assigned to the cello section because the cello is smaller and better suited for these techniques.
Despite its size, the double bass is not very loud because of its low pitch. In orchestras, four to eight bassists often play the same part together to increase volume. Larger orchestras may have up to ten or twelve bassists, though this is uncommon due to budget limits.
When writing solo parts for the bass, composers often keep the orchestration quiet so the bass can be heard clearly. In classical music, amplification is rarely used, though some solo performances may use subtle amplification called acoustic enhancement. The use of microphones and amplifiers in classical settings has sparked debate, as some believe the natural sound of instruments should remain unchanged.
In genres like jazz and blues, bassists use amplifiers with piezoelectric pickups connected by a 1/4-inch cable. Bluegrass and jazz players use less amplification than blues or psychobilly players. High volumes from other instruments can cause feedback, a problem worsened by the bass's large surface area. Solutions include electronic feedback eliminators and instruments like the electric upright bass, which has no soundbox and reduces feedback. Some players avoid feedback by lowering their volume or moving farther from their amplifier.
In rockabilly and psychobilly, slapping the strings is a key technique. Since piezoelectric pickups do not capture slapping sounds well, bassists in these genres often use both a piezoelectric pickup (for bass tones) and a small microphone (to capture slapping sounds). These signals are mixed together before being sent to the amplifier.
The double bass is large and fragile, making it difficult to carry. Most bassists use soft cases called gig bags to protect the instrument. These range from basic, thin cases for students to thick, padded cases for professionals. Some cases include pockets for bow cases or wheels for easier transport. Hard flight cases made of materials like carbon fiber or Kevlar are used by touring professionals but are expensive and costly to transport.
Double bass players use accessories to help perform and practice. In orchestral music, three types of mutes are used: a wooden mute that slides onto the bridge, a rubber mute attached to the bridge, and a wire mute with brass weights. Mutes are used when the score indicates "con sordino" (with mute) and removed for "senza sordino" (without mute). Muted playing produces a quieter, darker sound. A heavy rubber mute is used for quiet practice.
A quiver is a leather pouch that holds the bow. It attaches to the bridge and tailpiece and is used when playing pizzicato parts.
A wolf tone eliminator reduces unwanted vibrations between the bridge and tailpiece that can cause dissonant tones. It consists of a rubber tube and a metal sleeve with a screw. Adjusting the position of the sleeve changes the string's natural frequency, reducing the wolf tone. This occurs when the string below the bridge vibrates sympathetically with a played note, creating a dissonant sound.
Classical repertoire
During the 18th century, the double bass became a popular solo instrument. Many famous composers from that time wrote music for it. The double bass, also called the Violone, had different tunings depending on the region. One popular tuning was called "Viennese tuning" (A1–D2–F♯2–A2). In some cases, a fifth or sixth string was added (F1–A1–D2–F♯2–A2). Leopold Mozart wrote about the double bass in his book Violinschule. He noted that the five-string violone could play difficult passages and that he heard beautiful performances of concertos, trios, and solos.
The earliest known concerto for the double bass was written by Joseph Haydn around 1763. It was likely destroyed in a fire at the Eisenstadt library. Carl Ditters von Dittersdorf composed two concertos for the double bass and a Sinfonia Concertante for viola and double bass. Other composers from this time included Johann Baptist Wanhal, Franz Anton Hoffmeister, Leopold Kozeluch, Anton Zimmermann, Antonio Capuzzi, Wenzel Pichl, and Johannes Matthias Sperger. Although these composers were well-known in their time, they are not widely recognized today. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart’s concert aria, Per questa bella mano, includes impressive writing for the double bass. It is still popular among singers and double bassists.
The double bass evolved to meet the needs of orchestras that required lower notes and louder sounds. Leading double bassists in the 18th century, such as Josef Kämpfer, Friedrich Pischelberger, and Johannes Matthias Sperger, used the "Viennese" tuning. Johann Hindle, who composed a concerto for the double bass, introduced tuning the instrument in fourths, which changed how the double bass was used in solo performances. Domenico Dragonetti, a famous musician who knew Haydn and Beethoven, played in concerts across Europe. His performances may have influenced Beethoven to write separate parts for the double bass in some symphonies. These parts did not repeat the cello’s music.
Dragonetti wrote ten concertos for the double bass and many solo pieces for bass and piano. During his time in London in 1824, Rossini composed a duet for cello and double bass for Dragonetti and the cellist David Salomons. Dragonetti often played a three-string double bass tuned G–D–A. Using only the top three strings was common in the 19th century because it reduced pressure on the instrument’s wooden top, creating a more resonant sound. The thick gut strings used in the 19th century were difficult to tune and play.
In the 19th century, Giovanni Bottesini, called the "Paganini of the double bass," wrote concertos in the style of Italian opera. His music required fast, difficult techniques and used high notes, including harmonics. Many 19th- and early 20th-century bassists found his music very challenging, but it is now performed more often. A group of Czech bassists, including Franz Simandl and Josef Hrabe, also developed important teaching methods still used today.
Serge Koussevitzky, a conductor and bassist, helped make the double bass a respected solo instrument in the early 20th century. Improvements like steel strings and better setups allowed bassists to play more advanced music. Many composers wrote new concertos for the double bass in the 20th century, including works by Nikos Skalkottas, Eduard Tubin, Lars-Erik Larsson, Gunther Schuller, Hans Werner Henze, and Frank Proto.
John Cage included a solo for the double bass in his work Concert for Piano and Orchestra. His other pieces, such as Atlas Eclipticalis and Variations I, can also be played as solos or with other instruments. Gary Karr, a leading double bassist in the 1960s through the 1990s, commissioned many new works for the instrument. He played Koussevitzky’s famous double bass for 40 years before giving it to the International Society of Bassists. Bertram Turetzky also commissioned over 300 works for the double bass.
In the 1970s through the 1990s, composers like Nino Rota, Alan Ridout, Jean Françaix, and Frank Proto wrote new concertos for the double bass. In the 21st century, composers such as Frank Proto, Kalevi Aho, John Harbison, André Previn, and John Woolrich continued writing for the instrument. Reinhold Glière, Paul Hindemith, and Frank Proto also wrote sonatas for the double bass and piano. Mieczysław Weinberg, Giacinto Scelsi, and others created additional works for the double bass.
Use in jazz
Beginning around 1890, early New Orleans jazz groups played a mix of marches, ragtime, and Dixieland music. These groups started as marching bands, with the tuba or sousaphone (or sometimes a bass saxophone) playing the bass line. As jazz music moved into bars and brothels, the upright bass gradually replaced these wind instruments around the 1920s. Many early bassists played both the brass bass (tuba) and the string bass, as these were the common names for the instruments at the time. Bassists played improvised "walking" bass lines—lines based on scales and chords that followed the chord progression.
An unamplified upright bass is usually the quietest instrument in a jazz band. Because of this, many bassists in the 1920s and 1930s used a playing style called "slap," where they slapped and pulled the strings to make a rhythmic "slap" sound against the fingerboard. This style helped the bass be heard more clearly in a band and on early sound recordings, as recording equipment at the time did not capture low frequencies well.
Jazz bass players are expected to create an accompaniment line or solo based on a given chord progression. They must also know rhythmic patterns that match different styles, such as Afro-Cuban music. In big bands, bassists must read written bass lines, as some arrangements include written parts for the bass.
Many upright bass players have helped shape jazz. Examples include swing-era musicians like Jimmy Blanton, who played with Duke Ellington, and Oscar Pettiford, who helped introduce the instrument in bebop music. Paul Chambers, who worked with Miles Davis on the famous Kind of Blue album, became known for being one of the first jazz bassists to play bebop solos with a bow. Terry Plumeri advanced the use of arco (bowed) solos, achieving a clear, vocal-like tone. Charlie Haden, best known for his work with Ornette Coleman, defined the role of the bass in Free Jazz.
Other important bassists include Ray Brown, Slam Stewart, and Niels-Henning Ørsted Pedersen. Stewart, who was popular with bebop musicians, played solos using a bow and octave humming. Charles Mingus was a highly respected composer and bassist known for his technical skill and powerful sound. Scott LaFaro influenced many musicians by changing the role of the bass from a steady rhythm behind soloists to more interactive, conversational melodies. Since the 1950s, when bass amplifiers became available, jazz bassists have used amplification to increase the instrument’s natural volume.
The electric bass guitar was used in jazz as early as 1951, but starting in the 1970s, bassists like Bob Cranshaw (who played with Sonny Rollins) and fusion pioneers Jaco Pastorius and Stanley Clarke began using the bass guitar more often instead of the upright bass. However, except for styles like jazz fusion and Latin-influenced jazz, the upright bass remains the main instrument for bass parts in jazz. The upright bass has a unique sound compared to the electric bass guitar because its strings are not stopped by metal frets, allowing for a continuous range of tones on the fingerboard. Additionally, bass guitars usually have a solid wood body, and their sound is created through electronic amplification, while the upright bass produces sound naturally through acoustic reverberation.
Examples of the upright bass’s sound and use in jazz can be heard on recordings such as Emerald Tears (1978) by Dave Holland and Emergence (1986) by Miroslav Vitouš. Holland also recorded an album titled Music from Two Basses (1971), where he plays with Barre Phillips and sometimes switches to cello.
Use in bluegrass and country
The string bass is the most common bass instrument in bluegrass music and is usually plucked. Some modern bluegrass bassists also use a bow. The bluegrass bassist is part of the rhythm section and keeps a steady beat, whether the music is fast or slow and in 4/4 or 4/4 time. The bass also helps create the chord progression and harmony. The Engelhardt-Link (formerly Kay) brands of plywood laminate basses have been popular choices for bluegrass bassists for many years. Most bluegrass bassists use the 3⁄4 size bass, but full-size and 5⁄8 size basses are also used.
Before bluegrass music became popular, traditional music was often played with a cello. Cellist Natalie Haas notes that old photographs and recordings show American string bands with cello players. However, the cello became less common in folk music and was later associated with orchestras. The cello returned to bluegrass music in the 1990s and early 2000s. Some modern bluegrass bands use electric basses because they are easier to carry than the large upright bass. However, electric basses have a different sound than upright basses. Many musicians believe the upright bass has a slower, more "earthy" or "natural" sound, especially when gut strings are used.
Common rhythms in bluegrass bass playing usually involve plucking on beats 1 and 3 in 4/4 time, beats 1 and 2 in 4/4 time, or the downbeat in 3/4 time (waltz time). Bluegrass bass lines are typically simple, staying on the root and fifth of each chord throughout most of a song. There are two main exceptions to this rule. Bluegrass bassists often play a diatonic walkup or walkdown, where they play every beat of a bar for one or two bars, usually during a chord change. Additionally, if a bassist is given a solo, they may play a walking bass line with a note on every beat or use a pentatonic scale-influenced bassline.
An early bluegrass bassist to gain recognition was Howard Watts (also known as Cedric Rainwater), who played with Bill Monroe’s Blue Grass Boys starting in 1944. Classical bassist Edgar Meyer has played in newgrass, old-time, jazz, and other genres. In 2005, Barry Bales of Union Station said, "My all-time favorite is Todd Phillips," noting that Phillips brought a new way of thinking about and playing bluegrass.
The upright bass was the standard instrument in traditional country western music. While upright basses are still used in country music, electric basses have mostly replaced them, especially in pop-influenced country styles from the 1990s and 2000s, such as new country.
Slap-style bass is sometimes used in bluegrass. When bluegrass bassists pull the string until it hits the fingerboard or strike the strings against the fingerboard, it creates a high-pitched, percussive "clack" or "slap" sound that adds to the low-pitched bass notes. This sound is similar to the steps of a tap dancer. Slapping is sometimes debated in the bluegrass community. Even experts like Mike Bub advise, "Don’t slap on every gig" or in songs where it is not appropriate. Many bluegrass bassists use less slap on recordings than in live performances. Bub and his mentor Jerry McCoury rarely use slap bass on recordings. Some bassists, like Jack Cook, use slap bass on faster songs, while others, such as Gene Libbea, Missy Raines, Jenny Keel, and Barry Bales, rarely use it.
Bluegrass bassist Mark Schatz, who teaches slap bass in his Intermediate Bluegrass Bass DVD, says that slap bass is not common in the music he has recorded. He notes that slap bass appears only occasionally in traditional bluegrass and mostly in contemporary styles, such as those by Tony Rice and Tim O’Brien. Schatz says he is more likely to use slap bass in live performances for solos or to highlight specific parts of a song. Another bluegrass method, Learn to Play Bluegrass Bass by Earl Gately, also teaches slap bass techniques. German bassist Didi Beck plays rapid triplet slaps, as shown in this video.
Use in popular music
In the early 1950s, the upright bass was the standard instrument for playing bass in the new style of rock and roll music. Marshall Lytle, a member of Bill Haley & His Comets, was one example of a musician who played this instrument. In the 1940s, a new style of dance music called rhythm and blues developed, combining elements from blues and swing music. Louis Jordan, the first musician to innovate this style, included an upright bass in his group, the Tympany Five.
The upright bass remained an important part of pop music groups throughout the 1950s. Rock and roll music was influenced by rhythm and blues, as well as jazz, country, and bluegrass. However, upright bass players faced challenges. They had to compete with loud horn instruments and later electric guitars, which made it hard for the bass to be heard clearly. The upright bass is difficult to amplify in large venues because it can produce loud, unwanted noises called feedback. Additionally, the upright bass is large and hard to transport, creating problems for bands traveling on tour. In some groups, the slap bass was used as a percussion instrument instead of a drummer. For example, Bill Haley & His Saddlemen, the group that later became the Comets, used slap bass for rhythm in recordings and live performances until late 1952.
In 1951, Leo Fender introduced the Precision Bass, the first electric bass guitar that was widely sold. This instrument had built-in pickups that made it easy to amplify, was smaller and easier to carry than an upright bass, and had metal frets that helped musicians play in tune. During the 1960s and 1970s, bands performed in louder settings and larger venues. The electric bass could produce the strong, amplified sound needed for these performances, while the upright bass became less common in popular music.
The upright bass returned to popular music in the mid-1980s because of a renewed interest in folk and country music, which became part of trends like roots rock and Americana. In the 1990s, improvements in technology made it easier for bassists to use upright or acoustic basses with clear, amplified sound. Some popular bands, such as the Barenaked Ladies, chose to use upright basses instead of electric basses. A trend for "unplugged" performances on MTV, where bands used only acoustic instruments, also helped increase public interest in upright basses and acoustic guitars.
Jim Creeggan of the Barenaked Ladies primarily plays upright bass, though he has used electric bass more often in recent years. Chris Wyse of the alternative rock band Owl uses both electric and upright bass. Athol Guy of the Australian group The Seekers plays upright bass. Shannon Birchall of the John Butler Trio uses upright basses for long, live solos in songs like "Betterman." On the 2008 album In Ear Park by the band Department of Eagles, a bowed upright bass is featured in songs such as "Teenagers" and "In Ear Park." The Norwegian band Kaizers Orchestra uses upright basses exclusively in both live performances and recordings.
The French pop duo "What a Day" uses a technique called extended pizzicato on the upright bass, combining it with vocals and a typewriter. Hank Williams III’s bass players, including Jason Brown, Joe Buck, and Zach Shedd, used upright basses for recordings and live performances during the country and Hellbilly sets of his shows. They later switched to electric bass for the Assjack set.
The rockabilly-punk genre of psychobilly, which began in the late 1970s, continued the tradition of using slap bass from earlier rockabilly music. Bassists like Kim Nekroman and Geoff Kresge developed fast slap bass techniques that make the bass function like a percussion instrument.
Modern playing styles
In popular music, the bass instrument is often played with amplifiers and using the fingers to pluck the strings, a method called pizzicato. The way players use their fingers can vary. Some use the sides of their fingers for steady, slow melodies, while others use the tips of their fingers for fast, light notes. Amplifiers help bass players control the sound better because they can adjust the balance of low and high frequencies. This makes the low tones louder and reduces unwanted noise from the fingers.
An acoustic bass without amplification has a limited sound because its hollow body can’t produce very low or very high tones as clearly. With amplifiers, bass players can increase the volume of low frequencies, changing how the instrument sounds. Amplifiers also help the notes last longer, which is helpful for playing soft, flowing melodies or holding notes in solos.
In some music styles, like traditional jazz, swing, polka, rockabilly, and psychobilly, the bass is sometimes played using a slap style. This involves quickly slapping the strings against the fingerboard between main notes, creating a drum-like sound. The main notes are played either normally or by pulling the string away from the fingerboard and letting it bounce back, adding a sharp, percussive effect. Skilled players often use multiple slaps between notes.
The slap style may have inspired electric bass guitar players. Starting in the mid-1960s, musicians like Larry Graham used a technique called slap and pop. This involves using the thumb to hit the string for a slapping sound and the index or middle finger to pull the string back for a popping sound. James Jamerson, a Motown bass player, often used a double bass to enhance electric bass recordings and vice versa.
Double bassists
- Domenico Dragonetti (1763–1846) Skilled performer, composer, conductor
- Giovanni Bottesini (1821–1889) Skilled performer, composer, conductor
- Franz Simandl (1840–1912) Skilled performer, composer, teacher
- Édouard Nanny (1872–1943) Skilled performer, composer
- Serge Koussevitzky (1874–1951) Skilled performer, composer, conductor
- François Rabbath (1931–) Skilled performer, composer
- Gary Karr (1941–2025) Skilled performer
- Edgar Meyer (1960– ) Skilled performer, composer, teacher
Some of the most influential modern classical double bass players are known for both their teaching and their performances. For example, American bassist Oscar G. Zimmerman (1910–1987) taught at the Eastman School of Music and at the Interlochen National Music Camp in Michigan for 44 summers. French bassist François Rabbath (born 1931) created a new method for learning the double bass that divides the fingerboard into six sections. Bassists known for their expert solo skills include American teacher and performer Gary Karr (1941–2025), Finnish composer Teppo Hauta-aho (born 1941), Italian composer Fernando Grillo, and American player-composer Edgar Meyer. For more names, see the List of contemporary classical double bass players.
Notable jazz bassists from the 1940s to the 1950s include Jimmy Blanton (1918–1942), who played with the Duke Ellington Swing band before his death from tuberculosis and introduced new melodic and harmonic ideas for the instrument. Ray Brown (1926–2002) supported famous jazz musicians like Dizzy Gillespie, Oscar Peterson, Art Tatum, and Charlie Parker, and helped form the Modern Jazz Quartet. Hard bop bassist Ron Carter (born 1937) appeared on over 3,500 albums, including recordings by Thelonious Monk, Wes Montgomery, and many artists from Blue Note Records. Paul Chambers (1935–1969) played with the Miles Davis Quintet, including the famous modal jazz album Kind of Blue, and was known for his creative improvisations.
The experimental post-1960s era, including free jazz and jazz-rock fusion, produced influential bassists. Charles Mingus (1922–1979), a composer and bandleader, blended hard bop with gospel, free jazz, and classical music. Free jazz and post-bop bassist Charlie Haden (1937–2014) worked closely with saxophonist Ornette Coleman and was part of the 1970s Liberation Music Orchestra. Eddie Gómez and George Mraz, who played with Bill Evans and Oscar Peterson, respectively, helped raise the standard for pizzicato (plucked) techniques and melodic phrasing. Fusion virtuoso Stanley Clarke (born 1951) is known for his skill on both the upright and electric bass. Terry Plumeri is recognized for his smooth, horn-like bowing style and expressive tone.
In the 1990s and early 2000s, Christian McBride (born 1972) became a notable "young lion" in jazz, performing with musicians like McCoy Tyner, Herbie Hancock, and Chick Corea, and releasing albums such as Vertical Vision (2003). Another young bassist, Esperanza Spalding (born 1984), won a Grammy for Best New Artist at age 27.
In addition to his classical work, Edgar Meyer is also respected in bluegrass and newgrass music. Todd Phillips is another well-known bluegrass bassist. Famous rockabilly bassists include Bill Black, Marshall Lytle (with Bill Haley & His Comets), and Lee Rocker (with the Stray Cats).
Notable rockabilly revivalists and psychobilly performers from the 1990s and early 2000s include Scott Owen (from the Australian band The Living End), Jimbo Wallace (from the US band Reverend Horton Heat), Kim Nekroman (Nekromantix), Patricia Day (HorrorPops), and Geoff Kresge (Tiger Army, ex-AFI). Willie Dixon (1915–1992) was a key figure in rhythm and blues history. As an upright bassist, he wrote many R&B hits, produced music, and played bass on numerous Chuck Berry rock and roll songs. Other rockabilly bands, such as El Rio Trio from the Netherlands, also use the double bass in their music. For more names, see the List of double bassists in popular music.
Pedagogy and training
The way double bass is taught and practiced differs based on the music style and country. In classical music, teaching methods for the double bass have been around for many centuries. These methods include books, practice exercises, and lessons that help students build strength and accuracy in their left hand and control in their right hand when using the bow. Teaching styles vary by country, with major European nations linked to specific methods, such as the Édouard Nanny method in France or the Franz Simandl method in Germany. In classical training, most right-hand lessons focus on making good bowing sounds, while less time is spent on learning different plucking (pizzicato) sounds.
In contrast, music styles that use plucking more often, like jazz and blues, spend more time teaching how to create different plucking styles for various musical tempos. For example, in jazz, students learn to pluck with the sides of their fingers for deep, full sounds in slow songs, with the tips of their fingers for fast, rhythmic lines, and by raking strings to make percussive sounds.
Classical and jazz music have the most organized systems for teaching the double bass. In classical music, children can start private lessons and play in youth orchestras. Teens who want to become professional classical bassists can study in colleges, conservatories, or universities. Colleges offer certificates and diplomas in bass performance.
Conservatories, which are common in France and Quebec, Canada, provide lessons and opportunities to play in amateur orchestras. Universities offer programs like bachelor’s degrees, master’s degrees, and doctorates in double bass performance. Other training options include summer camps and festivals where students can play a wide range of music.
A bachelor’s degree in bass performance (B.Mus. or B.M.) takes four years and includes lessons, orchestra experience, and courses in music history, theory, and other subjects like English. Students often perform solo recitals, such as playing concertos or Baroque suites.
A master’s degree (M.Mus. or M.M.) in double bass includes private lessons, ensemble experience, and courses in music history and theory. Students also perform solo recitals. This degree is often needed for teaching positions at universities or conservatories.
A Doctor of Musical Arts (D.M.A., DMA, D.Mus.A., or A.Mus.D.) degree requires advanced study and is highly selective. Students must complete additional coursework, pass exams, and perform multiple recitals, including a lecture-recital with a doctoral dissertation.
In the early history of jazz, double bass players often learned informally or through classical training, as with musicians like Ron Carter and Charles Mingus. In the 1980s and 1990s, colleges began offering jazz performance degrees. Students in jazz programs take individual lessons, play in small groups and big bands, and study music history and theory focused on jazz eras like Swing and Bebop. They also learn skills for improvisation and composing. Jazz summer camps and festivals provide additional learning opportunities.
In genres like blues, rockabilly, and psychobilly, teaching methods are less formal. There are no degrees in blues bass performance or conservatory programs for rockabilly. However, books, DVDs, and private lessons are available. Some blues or rockabilly bassists may have learned from classical or jazz training. In styles like tango, which use both bowing and plucking, bassists often come from classical or jazz backgrounds.
Careers
Careers for double bass players differ based on music styles and locations. Most bassists work by performing and teaching. To get performance jobs, bassists often play at an audition. In some music styles, like jazz bands, bassists may be asked to read music at first sight or play familiar songs, such as "Now's the Time," with a group. In rock or blues bands, auditioners might be asked to play popular rock or blues songs. An upright bassist trying out for a blues band could be asked to play a Swing-style walking bassline, a rockabilly-style "slapping" bassline (where the strings are hit against the fingerboard), and a 1950s ballad with long, held notes. In some pop or rock groups, bassists may be required to sing harmony parts as backup singers. In some pop and rock bands, bassists might also be asked to play other instruments, such as electric bass, keyboards, or acoustic guitar. In country music groups, the ability to play electric bass is often expected, especially when performing classic rock or new country songs.
In classical music, bassists audition for orchestra jobs or to join university or Conservatory programs. During a classical bass audition, the performer usually plays a piece from a J.S. Bach suite written for solo cello or a section from a bass concerto, along with challenging parts from orchestral music. Common pieces requested at auditions include sections from Beethoven's Symphonies Nos. 5, 7, and 9; Strauss's Ein Heldenleben and Don Juan; Mozart's Symphonies Nos. 35, 39, and 40; Brahms's Symphonies Nos. 1 and 2; Stravinsky's Pulcinella; Shostakovich's Symphony No. 5; Ginastera's Variaciones Concertante; Tchaikovsky's Symphony No. 4; Mahler's Symphony No. 2; J.S. Bach's Suite No. 2 in B; Berlioz's Symphonie Fantastique; Mendelssohn's Symphony No. 4; and bass solos from Verdi's opera Otello, Mahler's Symphony No. 1, Britten's The Young Person's Guide to the Orchestra, and Prokofiev's Lieutenant Kije Suite.