A djembe or jembe (pronounced JEM-bay) is a drum with a skin cover and a body shaped like a goblet. It is part of the Sabar family and comes from Senegal, where it is widely used in West Africa. The Bambara people of Mali say the name "djembe" comes from the phrase "Anke djé, anke bé," which means "everyone gather together in peace." In the Bambara language, "djé" means "gather" and "bé" means "peace."

The djembe is made with a body carved from hardwood and a drumhead made of untreated animal skin, usually from goats. The drum has an outside diameter of 30–38 cm (12–15 in) and a height of 58–63 cm (23–25 in). Most djembes are between 13 and 14 inches wide. The weight of a djembe ranges from 5 kg to 13 kg (11–29 lbs), depending on its size and the type of wood used. A medium-sized djembe made from traditional wood typically weighs about 9 kg (20 lbs).

The djembe can create many different sounds, making it a very flexible instrument. It is very loud, so it can be heard clearly even when played alone among other drums. The Malinké people say a skilled drummer can make the djembe "talk," meaning the player can share an emotional story. The Malinké never used the djembe to send signals.

Traditionally, only men play the djembe, along with the dunun drums that often accompany it. Other percussion instruments, such as the shekere (a gourd covered with a net of beads), karignan (a tubular bell), and kese kese (a woven basket rattle), are usually played by women. Today, it is still rare to see women play the djembe or dunun in West Africa. African women often express surprise when they see a woman playing these drums.

Origin

Most people agree that the djembe drum comes from the Mandinka group of blacksmiths called Numu. The djembe spread widely across West Africa, possibly because Numu people moved during the first millennium CE. Even though the djembe is linked to the Numu, there are no family rules about who can play it. This is different from other instruments, like the balafon, kora, and ngoni, which are only played by members of the griot caste. (The djembe is not a griot instrument.) Anyone who plays the djembe is called a djembefola. This term does not mean a person has special skill.

The djembe was traditionally found in areas of the Mali Empire, which began in 1230 CE and covered parts of modern-day Guinea, Mali, Burkina Faso, Ivory Coast, Gambia, and Senegal. However, because there are few written records in West Africa, it is unclear if the djembe existed before or after the Mali Empire. It is likely that the djembe has a history of at least several centuries, and possibly more than a thousand years.

The djembe’s shape, which looks like a goblet, suggests it may have been made from a mortar. Mortars are commonly used in West Africa for preparing food.

Recent history

Before the 1950s and the end of colonial rule in West Africa, native Africans rarely traveled outside their own ethnic groups. Because of this, the djembe was only known in its original region.

The djembe first became known to people outside West Africa because of Fodéba Keïta. In 1952, he started a group called Les Ballets Africains. This group traveled widely in Europe and was named Guinea’s first national ballet by Guinea’s first president, Sékou Touré, after Guinea gained independence in 1958. Two more national ballets followed: Ballet d'Armee in 1961 and Ballet Djoliba in 1964.

Touré’s policies made Guinea less connected to the West. He used the country’s culture and music to promote Guinea, following the example of countries in the Eastern Bloc. Touré and Fodéba Keïta, who became close friends, believed the ballets could help modernize traditional customs and rituals from different ethnic groups in Guinea. The ballets combined rhythms and dances from different spiritual traditions in one performance, which supported Touré’s goal of reducing the influence of traditional rituals.

Touré supported the ballets strongly, even building a special space in his palace for Ballet Djoliba. He funded worldwide tours until his death in 1984, which helped Western audiences learn about the djembe. Other countries in the 1960s also created national ballets, such as Ivory Coast (Ballet Koteba), Mali (Les Ballets Malien), and Senegal (Le Ballet National du Senegal), each with its own political goals.

In the United States, Ladji Camara, a member of Ballets Africains in the 1950s, began teaching djembe in the 1960s and continued until the 1990s. He performed with Babatunde Olatunji in the 1970s, which increased awareness of the djembe in the U.S.

After Sékou Touré died in 1984, funding for the ballets stopped. Many djembefolas, who were not paid well, left Guinea and taught and performed in Western countries, including Mamady Keïta (Belgium, U.S.), Famoudou Konaté (Germany), and Epizo Bangoura (France, U.S., Australia). Others, like M'bemba Bangoura and Abdoulaye Diakité, also moved to Western countries, creating a large group of expatriate performers and teachers.

A 1991 documentary called Djembefola, made by Laurent Chevallier, showed Mamady Keïta returning to his birthplace after 26 years. The film won awards at the International Documentary Film Festival Amsterdam and the Marseille Festival of Documentary Film, and it helped many people learn about the djembe.

A 1998 follow-up documentary, Mögöbalu (also by Chevallier), showed four master drummers performing together on stage.

The 2007 movie The Visitor, which was nominated for an Oscar, helped the djembe become known to a wider audience around the world.

Many Western artists, such as Paul Simon and Cirque du Soleil, have used the djembe, which has increased awareness of the instrument in Western countries.

There are far more recordings of the djembe than any other African drum. Starting in the late 1980s, many djembe-focused recordings were released, and this trend continued as of 2014. These recordings are driven by demand from Western audiences, and few djembe recordings are made in African countries.

Early educational materials for learning the djembe included a VHS tape by Babatunde Olatunji (1993) and books by Serge Blanc, Famoudou Konaté, and Mamady Keïta. In 1998, a three-volume VHS set by Keïta was released, and in 2000, a VHS tape by Epizo Bangoura was added. By 2014, many educational books, CDs, and videos were available for learners.

In the 1980s, Guinean djembefolas like Epizo Bangoura, Famoudou Konaté, and Mamady Keïta started offering study tours to Guinea, allowing students to experience Guinean culture directly. By 2014, there were many djembe tours available each year. This created a new market for djembefolas in Guinea, and young performers now try to meet the needs of tourists, leading to changes in traditional djembe culture.

Most djembes from Mali, Guinea, Burkina Faso, and Senegal are still made by hand from traditional types of wood using traditional tools. In the 1990s, djembes began being made in other countries, such as Ghana, Nigeria, South Africa, and Indonesia, often using modern machines and less suitable woods like tweneboa or mahogany. Some Western companies also make djembe-like instruments with fiberglass, synthetic skins, and tuning systems.

Over time, traditional rules that limited women from playing the djembe and dunun have changed.

• In 1998, Mamoudou Conde, director of several Guinean ballets, started including women djembe and dunun players in performances, despite resistance from male performers. In 2000, two female djembe players joined the American tour of Les Percussions de Guinée. After positive feedback, Conde formed an all-female group called Amazones: The Women Master Drummers of Guinea (later renamed Nimbaya!). The group toured the U.S. starting in 2004 and continued performing through 2014.
• Notable female djembefolas include Salimata Diabaté from Burkina Faso, Monette Marino-Keita from San Diego, Anne-Yolaine Diarra from France, and Melissa Hie from Burkina Faso.

Sound and beating technique

The djembe drum is unusually loud for its size. The louder the drum gets as the skin is stretched tighter. When a djembe is tuned to a solo pitch, skilled players can create sounds as loud as a jackhammer, reaching over 105 decibels.

Djembe players use three basic sounds: bass, tone, and slap. These sounds have low, medium, and high pitches, respectively. Players change the sound by adjusting how and where they strike the drum. Additional sounds can be made, but they are used rarely, mostly for special effects during performances. Skilled players can use these sounds to create complex rhythms. The mix of rhythm and different pitches often makes it seem like multiple drums are being played.

The bass sound is made by hitting the center of the drum with the palm and flat fingers. Tone and slap are made by striking closer to the edge. For a tone, most of the fingers and the edge of the palm touch the drum. For a slap, only the edge of the palm and fingertips make contact. All basic sounds are played "open," meaning the hands bounce off the drum immediately after striking, keeping contact time short.

Acoustically, a djembe acts like a Helmholtz resonator. The bass pitch depends on the drum's size and shape, not the tightness of the skin. In contrast, the pitch of tone and slap increases as the skin is stretched tighter. Bass has a frequency of 65–80 Hz. Tone frequencies range from 300 Hz to 420 Hz, and slap frequencies range from 700 Hz to 1000 Hz. Overtones from these sounds can be heard beyond 4 kHz.

Different striking techniques highlight specific vibrations in the drum's skin. A tone focuses on one vibration type while reducing others. A slap highlights several vibrations while reducing others. Skilled players can also make a medium-pitched sound, called a third slap, tonpalo, or lé, which emphasizes a different vibration type.

Spectrum analysis shows the unique vibrations for each sound. The bass has a large peak from the Helmholtz resonance. The tone has two clear peaks at 343 Hz and 401 Hz. The tonpalo has a tall peak from a specific vibration. The slap has a sharp peak at 812 Hz and other higher vibrations.

By slightly changing how they strike the drum, skilled players can highlight different slap vibrations and create melodies with varying pitches.

Role in the traditional ensemble

The djembe is traditionally played as part of a group that includes other djembes and one or more dunun drums. Except for the lead (or solo) djembe, all instruments play a repeating rhythm pattern called an accompaniment part. This pattern repeats after a set number of beats, known as a cycle. The most common cycle length is four beats, but cycles can also be two, three, six, eight, or longer. Some rhythms from the dundunba family in the Hamana region of Guinea have cycles of 16, 24, 28, or 32 beats. Cycles longer than eight beats are rarely used for djembe accompaniments, as these longer cycles are usually played only by the dununba or sangban drums.

Each instrument plays a different rhythm pattern, and the cycle lengths of these patterns may vary. This creates complex overlapping rhythms (polyrhythms). The accompaniment parts are played on djembes tuned to different pitches, which highlights the polyrhythm and forms a combined melody.

The number of instruments in the ensemble depends on the region and the event. In Mali, a traditional group often includes one dunun (called konkoni) and one djembe. The konkoni and djembe play in a rhythmic exchange, with each taking turns to play accompaniment while the other plays improvised solos. If a second dunun player is available, he adds a khassonka dunun, a larger drum similar to the konkoni.

In Guinea, a typical group uses three djembes and three dunun drums: sangban (medium pitch), dundunba (bass pitch), and kenkeni (high pitch, also called kensedeni). If there are multiple djembes, the highest-pitched (and loudest) djembe plays solo phrases, while the others play accompaniment.

The number of dunun drums in an ensemble may vary depending on the availability of players and resources in a village.

A djembe and dunun ensemble does not play music for people to simply listen to. Instead, the group creates rhythm for dancing, singing, clapping, or working. In traditional settings, the idea of separate musicians and audience does not apply. The rhythm is participatory, meaning that musicians, dancers, singers, and onlookers are all part of the group and may switch roles during the music.

Participants often form a circle, with dancers in the center. Depending on the rhythm, dances may involve groups of men and/or women with choreographed steps, or individual dancers may perform short solos. The lead djembe player plays solo phrases that match the movements of the dancers. These phrases are often synchronized with the dancers’ steps. Solo dances are not choreographed, and dancers move freely based on what feels natural. Matching a solo dancer’s steps requires the lead djembefola to have a strong understanding of the dancer and many years of practice to develop the necessary rhythmic skills.

The lead djembefola may also improvise when no one is dancing. While there is freedom in this improvisation, the solo phrases are not random. Instead, they include specific rhythmic patterns (signature phrases) that the soloist is expected to know and use. A skilled soloist also plays phrases that fit well with the background rhythm (groove) created by the other instruments.

Construction

Traditionally made djembes are carved from a single log of hardwood. Many types of wood are used, all of which are hard and dense. The hardness and density of the wood affect how the djembe sounds and how far the sound travels. The most valued wood is lenke (Afzelia africana), not because it sounds better than other woods, but because the Malinké people believe it has stronger spiritual qualities. (Malinké tradition teaches that all things, living or dead, have a spiritual energy called nyama.) Other traditional woods include djalla (Khaya senegalensis), dugura (Cordyla africana), gueni (Pterocarpus erinaceus), gele (Prosopis africana), and iroko (Milicia excelsa).

Carvers shape the shells soon after cutting down the tree while the wood is still slightly wet and softer. This makes the wood easier to carve and prevents cracks from forming as the wood dries naturally. Carvers use simple hand tools, such as axes, adzes, spoke shaves, and rasps, to shape the shell. A well-carved djembe has a textured interior with scallops or shallow grooves that influence the sound of the instrument. (Djembes with smooth interiors have tones and slaps that last too long.) Often, the grooves form a spiral pattern, showing the carver’s care and skill.

The djembe is covered with a rawhide skin, most often from goats. Other animal skins, such as those from antelope, cow, kangaroo, or horse, can also be used. Thicker skins, like cowhide, produce a warmer sound with more overtones in the slaps, while thinner skins create a sharper, louder sound with fewer overtones. Thicker skins make it easier to play full tones but harder to play sharp slaps; thinner skins do the opposite. Thin skins are louder than thick ones. Thick skins, such as cowhide, are harder on the player’s hands and cause more calluses than goatskin.

Skins from goats in dry, hot climates or from poorly fed goats are preferred because they have less fat. Skins from cold-climate goats with high fat content tend to sound dull and lifeless. Even though male goat skins have less fat than female goat skins, many players prefer female skins because they smell less and are said to be softer.

The skin is attached with the spine running through the center of the drum head, with the spine pointing toward the player. This allows the hands to strike both sides of the spine equally. Animal skins are thicker along the spine than on the sides; centering the spine ensures the left and right hands strike equal areas of the skin. This helps keep the pitches of notes played by each hand similar. Normally, the head of the spine points toward the player, so the hands strike the area that used to be the goat’s shoulders. With thicker skins, such as from cows or horses, the skin is often taken from the side of the hide to avoid the thick spine.

Skins may be shaved before or after attaching them to the drum, or they may be de-haired using a process called liming. Liming weakens the skin; some djembefolas say limed skins are harder on the hands and sound less good than untreated skins.

Factory-made djembes often use synthetic materials, such as FiberSkyn, for the skin.

Modern djembes use synthetic rope, most commonly of kernmantle construction, with a diameter of 4–5 mm. Rope with low stretch is preferred. Most djembe ropes have a polyester core with a 16- or 32-plait mantle and about 5% stretch. Very low-stretch rope, such as Vectran and Spectra, is used rarely because it is much more expensive.

The way the skin is attached to the drum has changed over time.

Originally, the skin was fastened with wooden pegs driven through holes in the skin and the shell near the playing edge. Four to five people would stretch the wet skin over the drum to apply tension while the pegs were driven into the shell. As the skin dried, it shrank and added more tension, allowing the drum to resonate. A similar method is still used by the Landouma (a subgroup of the Baga people) for a drum called a gumbe. This technique likely dates back hundreds of years, though the exact time is unknown.

Until the 1980s, the most common way to attach the skin used twisted strips of cowhide as rope. The skin was fastened with rings made of cowhide; one ring was sewn into the edge of the skin, and a second ring was placed below it. Loops held the skin in place and connected the two rings. A long strip of cowhide was used to tighten the drum, applying tension between the top ring and a third ring around the stem. To add more tension, the vertical sections of the rope were woven into a diamond pattern that shortened the verticals. Wooden pegs could be used to increase tension further.

The pitch of these traditional djembes was much lower than modern ones because natural materials limited how much tension could be applied. Before playing, djembefolas would heat the skin near an open fire to remove moisture and shrink the skin, raising the pitch. This process had to be repeated often, every 15–30 minutes.

The modern mounting system began in the early 1970s when touring ballets used synthetic rope from the military. At first, the synthetic rope replaced the twisted cowhide strips. However, the rope could now be tightened so much that it tore through the skin, so drum makers started using steel rings instead of cowhide to hold the skin in place. Despite objections from many djembefolas, the modern system gradually replaced the traditional one and became the only method by 1991.

The skin is held in place between the top ring (called the crown ring) and the ring below it (called the flesh ring). A third ring (the bottom ring) is placed around the stem. The rings are often made from 6–8 mm rebar. Loops formed by cow hitches on the crown ring and bottom ring are connected by a length of rope. Tightening this rope applies tension. As the rope tightens, the cow hitches on the crown ring press the skin against the flesh ring below, securing the skin and stretching it over the

Tuning

After the vertical ropes are first tightened, a djembe is tuned by making twists in the vertical ropes to shorten them (Mali weave). When more than one row of twists is completed, the vertical rope forms diamond shapes that look nice. Proper use of the Mali weave keeps the rope that crosses the vertical ropes straight, preventing it from slowly moving upward in a spiral pattern.

The amount of tension that can be applied this way is very high. A djembe tuned to solo pitch has a sound frequency of about 400 Hz. For a drum with a 31 cm (12.2 in) playing surface, this equals a total pulling force of about 455 kg (1,000 lb), or 15,000 newton per meter (N/m) of tension. Modern djembes often have tuning lugs, similar to those on snare drums, allowing the drum to be adjusted using a drum key. Additionally, the drum heads on modern djembes can be made from many materials, including synthetic choices and natural materials like goatskin.

Decoration

Instead of cutting the skin above the crown ring, the drum maker can fold the skin over so it covers the crown ring. This is done for appearance; the fold does not help keep the skin attached.

Djembefolas often add one to four metal rattles to their drum. These are called sege sege (Malinké) or sesse (Susu), also known as ksink ksink. The rattles are used for decoration and to make the sound fuller. Sege sege are not a symbol of status or skill. Anyone can attach sege sege to their djembe, regardless of their ability or who they are playing with, without causing offense or breaking rules.

Colored ropes can be wrapped around the bowl of the drum for decoration. (To tune the drum, the rope wrap must be removed.) Djembes may also be decorated with cowrie shells, colored paint, decorative tacks, or other metal items.

Traditionally, any carvings on djembes are only on the foot. Different patterns are used based on the country, and traditional styles are usually simple. In the 2000s, increased demand from the West and competition among carvers led to more detailed carvings. These carvings can cover the entire foot and, in some cases, include the bowl of the drum.

In Guinea, drum makers often attach motorcycle tires to the foot of a djembe. This is done for decoration and to prevent the drum from slipping when playing seated on a slippery floor. This trend began in the late 1990s and came from attaching timing belts as decoration.

Study

In Africa, as it is today, a person must spend many years learning from a master during ceremonies and celebrations before becoming a djembefola, or djembe player. In communities of Western countries, learning to play the djembe usually involves finding a skilled drummer and taking private lessons or group classes. Students must first learn basic sounds and traditional rhythm patterns (4/4 and 12/8) to follow lessons. Many years of practice are needed to create a sound as high quality as that of a master drummer.

Written descriptions of rhythms are often not very accurate. Usually, only the main idea of the rhythm is written down, but the emotions and feeling it carries are hard to capture on paper. This is because West African music includes different types of swing (at least four) that are difficult to express using Western musical notation. Because of this, written materials for advanced players are rare, while general information about the djembe is easier to find.

With the development of music software like Percussion Studio, writing down and copying rhythms has become easier. This software helps people who do not have a group to practice with by allowing them to separate individual drum parts or change the speed of music to help with learning. A skilled user can record material learned in a workshop for later use. However, Percussion Studio cannot copy the exact tone or timing of a skilled player, so it is not useful for recording solos. The drum machine software Hydrogen includes sound files for the djembe, dunun, and bells that can be used for study as described above.

Notable djembefolas

• Abdoulaye Diakité from Senegal
• Hani Naser from Jordanian-American
• Latyr Sy from Senegal
• Mamady Keïta from Guinea
• Famoudou Konaté from Guinea
• Bolokada Conde from Guinea
• Yamadu Bani Dunbia from Mali
• Soungalo Coulibaly from Mali
• Drissa Kone from Mali /

Selected recordings

• Famoudou Konaté (1991). Rhythmen Der Malinke. Museum Collection Berlin: CD 18. Recordings made in Guinea, with detailed written information about the recording by Johannes Beer (in German and French). This is one of the earliest recordings focused on the djembe drum and is widely regarded as one of the best examples of traditional Guinean music.
• Les Ballets Africains (1990). Les Ballets Africains: Guinea. Musique du Monde, Buda Records. A recording of Guinea’s first national ballet, showing how traditional music was organized and planned for stage performances.
• Jaraba Jakite, Yamadu Bani Dunbia, Jeli Madi Kuyate (2007). The Art of Jenbe Drumming (Mali Tradition Vol. 1). bibiafrica. A companion CD to The Jenbe Realbook. Recordings of traditional village-style drumming, using only one djembe drum and one konkoni drum, performed by well-known experts.