The recorder is a type of woodwind instrument and belongs to a group called duct flutes, which also includes tin whistles and flageolets. It is the most well-known duct flute in Western classical music. A recorder can be identified by a thumb hole for the upper hand and seven finger holes: three for the upper hand and four for the lower hand.
Recorders come in different sizes and ranges. The most commonly used sizes today are the soprano (also called descant, with the lowest note C5), alto (also called treble, with the lowest note F4), tenor (lowest note C4), and bass (lowest note F3). Traditionally, recorders were made of wood or ivory. Today, professional recorders are often made of boxwood, while student and school recorders are usually made of plastic. The shape of a recorder’s inside and outside varies, but the hollow part is generally shaped to narrow toward the bottom. All recorders use a system of fingerings that often requires fingers to be placed in specific positions.
The recorder was first recorded in Europe during the Middle Ages and was widely used during the Renaissance and Baroque periods. It was rarely used during the Classical and Romantic periods. In the 20th century, the recorder was revived as part of a movement to perform music as it was originally played. It became a popular instrument for students and amateur musicians. Many composers, including Monteverdi, Lully, Purcell, Handel, Vivaldi, Telemann, Bach, Hindemith, and Berio, have written music for the recorder. There are many skilled professional players who can perform solo pieces on the recorder, and a large group of amateur musicians also play it.
The recorder’s sound is often described as clear and sweet. It has been historically linked to birds and shepherds. The instrument responds quickly to the player’s movements and can create a wide range of musical effects. Its open finger holes allow it to produce many different tones. Acoustically, the recorder’s sound is pure. When the air is directed precisely at the center of the instrument’s mouthpiece, the sound contains more odd harmonics. When the air is directed off-center, the harmonics are more evenly balanced.
Name
The instrument has had the name "recorder" in English since the 1300s. David Lasocki found the earliest use of "recorder" in the household records of the Earl of Derby (later King Henry IV) in 1388, which mention "i. fistula nomine Recordour" (1. a pipe called a 'Recorder').
By the 1400s, the name "recorder" appeared in English writing. The earliest examples are in John Lydgate’s Temple of Glas (around 1430): "These little shepherds fluting all day long … on their small recorders, on flutes." Another example is in Lydgate’s Fall of Princes (around 1431–1438): "Pan, god of Nature, with his pipes seven, / of recorders found first the melodies."
The name "recorder" was uniquely used in English for the instrument. In Middle-French, there was no word for "recorder" that referred to a musical instrument. The English word "record" (from Middle-French recorder) originally meant "to learn by heart, to remember, or to recite." It did not refer to playing music until the 1500s. Later, the word "recorder" gained two additional meanings: "silently practicing a tune" or "singing or rendering in song," which mostly referred to birds.
Partridge says that the use of the instrument by jongleurs (musicians) led to its connection with the verb "record." The reason this flute instrument—rather than another instrument used by jongleurs—was called a "recorder" is unknown.
In 1673, French musicians introduced the Baroque recorder to England, making the French name flute douce (or simply flute) popular. This name was previously used for the transverse flute (a flute held sideways). Until about 1695, the names "recorder" and "flute" were used together, but from 1673 to the late 1720s in England, the word "flute" always meant "recorder." In the 1720s, as the transverse flute became more popular, English speakers began adding words to clarify the difference, calling the recorder the "common flute," "common English-flute," or "English flute," while the transverse flute was called the "German flute" or simply "flute." Until at least 1765, some writers still used "flute" to mean "recorder."
Until the mid-1700s, Italian musical scores referred to the recorder as flauto, while the transverse flute was called flauto traverso. This distinction, like the English change from "recorder" to "flute," has caused confusion for modern editors, writers, and performers.
In most European languages, the first term for the recorder was simply the word for "flute." Today, similar words for "flute," when used without extra words, can still be unclear and may refer to the recorder, the modern concert flute, or other non-Western flutes. Starting in the 1530s, these languages began adding extra words to specify the recorder.
Nomenclature
Since the fifteenth century, many different sizes of recorders have been recorded, but clear names and musical symbols for these sizes were not created until the twentieth century.
Today, recorder sizes are named based on the range of human voices. This naming does not show the actual pitch the instrument makes but helps explain how the pitches of different recorders relate to each other. A group of recorders played together is called a "consort." Recorders are also often named by their lowest note, such as "recorder in F," which means the lowest note is F, no matter the octave.
A table in this section lists the standard names and ranges of modern recorders in F and C. Music written after the recorder's modern revival most often uses soprano, alto, tenor, and bass recorders, though sopranino and great bass recorders are also common. Consorts of recorders are sometimes described using terms from organ music: 8′ pitch means the group plays as written, 4′ pitch means the group plays an octave higher than written, and 16′ pitch means the group plays an octave lower than written. These groups can be combined in different ways.
As a general rule, the range of a Baroque recorder is about one octave higher than the range of the human voice type it is named after. For example, a soprano voice typically sings from C4 to C6, while a soprano recorder usually plays from C5 to C7.
Modern variations include names used in Britain, introduced by Arnold Dolmetsch. He called the recorder in C5 (soprano) the "descant" and the recorder in F4 (alto) the "treble." Because recorder sizes and naming conventions differ, especially for larger or less common instruments, it is often best to include the lowest note when naming a recorder to avoid confusion.
Modern recorder music is written in the key the instrument actually plays. Music for alto, tenor, and contrabass recorders is written at the same pitch as they sound. Music for sopranino, soprano, bass, and great bass recorders is usually written an octave lower than they sound. This means soprano and tenor recorders share the same notation, as do alto and sopranino recorders, and bass and contrabass recorders. Sometimes, special clefs are used to show the actual pitch, but this is not always done consistently.
Uncommon sizes and notations include the "garklein flutlein," which may be written two octaves below its actual pitch, and the "sub-contrabass," which may be written one octave above its actual pitch.
The earliest known written mention of a recorder is from 1388, referring to "a pipe called Recordour." Historically, recorders were used to play music written for voices or other instruments, or for general use. This meant performers often had to choose the right recorder for a piece and read music not specifically written for the instrument. When recorders were used alone in consorts, the pitch relationships between parts were usually kept, but when combined with other instruments, differences in pitch were sometimes ignored.
In the sixteenth century, recorder consorts were often tuned in fifths, not octaves as in modern C and F recorder consorts. This allowed consorts to include instruments in different keys, such as B♭, F, C, G, D, A, or E, though usually only three or four sizes were used at once. These recorders were treated like transposing instruments, meaning parts were written the same way as if they were made up of F3, C4, and G4 instruments. This was possible because sizes were spaced by fifths, except in rare cases. Parts were written using "chiavi naturali," which helped fit the music within the range of a single staff and the recorders of the time.
Transpositions, such as C3–G3–D4, G3–D4–A4, or B♭2–F3–C4, were used as described by Praetorius in his Syntagma Musicum. These allowed three instruments to play four-part music by repeating the middle size (e.g., F3–C4–C4–G4) or six-part music by repeating the upper and middle sizes (e.g., F3–C4–C4–C4–G4–G4). Modern names for these recorders focus on their relationship to other instruments in the consort, not their exact pitch. From lowest to highest, they are called "great bass," "bass," "basset," "tenor," "alto," and "soprano." Possible sizes include: great bass in F2; bass in B♭2 or C3; basset in F3 or G3; tenor in B♭3, C4, or D4; alto in F4, G4, or A4; and soprano in C5 or D5.
The alto in F4 is the standard Baroque recorder, though some music was written for other sizes. In seventeenth-century England, smaller recorders were named based on their relationship to the alto and were written as transposing instruments. These included the "third flute" (A4), "fifth flute" (C5, also called soprano), "sixth flute" (D5), and "octave flute" (F5, also called sopranino). The term "fourth flute" (B♭4) was used by Charles Dieupart, though he treated it as a transposing instrument related to the soprano rather than the alto. In German-speaking regions, the term "Quartflöte" was applied to both the tenor in C4 (a fourth below the alto in F4) and the soprano in C5 (a fourth above the alto in G4). Baroque recorder music was typically written in the treble clef, though it could also be written in the French violin clef (G clef on the bottom line of the staff).
In modern times, recorders not in C or F are often named by combining the closest C or F instrument with their lowest note. For example, a recorder with the lowest note G4 might be called a "G-alto" or "alto in G," one with the lowest note D5 (also called the "sixth flute") might be called a "D-soprano" or "soprano in D," and a recorder in G3 might be called a "G-bass" or "G-basset." This system is not always consistent. Notably, the Baroque recorder in D4 is rarely called a "D-tenor" or "D-alto" and is more commonly referred to by its historical name, "voice flute."
Structure
Recorders have been traditionally made from hardwoods and ivory, sometimes with metal tone keys. Since the modern revival of the recorder, plastics have been used in large-scale production of recorders, as well as by some individual makers.
Today, many types of hardwoods are used to create the body of recorders. Fewer types of wood are used for recorder blocks, which are often made of red cedar. This wood is chosen because it resists rot, absorbs water well, and expands little when wet. A recent development is the use of synthetic ceramics in making recorder blocks. Instruments with this feature were sold by Moeck in the 1970s.
Some recorders have tone holes that are too far apart for a player's hands to reach or too large to cover with fingers. In these cases, keys can be added to cover the tone holes more comfortably. Keys also allow for longer instruments with larger tone holes. Keys are most common on recorders larger than the alto. Instruments larger than the tenor require at least one key so the player can cover all eight holes. Keys are sometimes used on smaller recorders to improve hand reach and the placement and size of tone holes.
When playing a larger recorder, a player may struggle to reach the keys or tone holes with their fingers and also reach the windway with their mouth. In such cases, a bocal may be used. A bocal allows the player to blow into the recorder while keeping their hands in a comfortable position. Alternatively, some recorders have a bent bore, which moves the windway closer to the keys or finger holes. These instruments are called "knick" or bent-neck recorders.
Newer recorder designs are now being made. Some recorders have a square cross-section, which can be produced more cheaply and in larger sizes than those made by turning. Another development is the creation of instruments with a wider range of dynamics and stronger lower notes. These designs help players be heard more clearly in musical performances. Additionally, recorders with a downward extension of a semitone are now available. These instruments can play a full three octaves in tune.
In the early 1900s, Peter Harlan created a recorder with a simpler fingering system, known as German fingering. A recorder designed for German fingering has a smaller hole five compared to hole four, while baroque and neo-baroque recorders have a smaller hole four compared to hole five. The most noticeable difference in fingering is for the note F (soprano) or B♭ (alto), which on a neo-baroque recorder requires the fingers to be placed in a specific pattern. With German fingering, this becomes simpler. However, this system makes many other notes too out of tune to be useful. German fingering became popular in Europe, especially Germany, during the 1930s but fell out of use by the 1950s as people began to take the recorder more seriously. Today, recorders with German fingering are only made for educational purposes.
Modern recorders are most often tuned to A=440 Hz. However, serious amateur and professional players often use other pitch standards. For performances of Baroque music, A=415 Hz is the standard, while pre-Baroque music is often played at A=440 Hz or A=466 Hz. These standards reflect the wide range of pitch variations throughout the recorder's history. In different regions and time periods, pitch standards have ranged from A=~392 Hz to A=~520 Hz. The pitches A=415 Hz and A=466 Hz, which are a semitone lower and higher than A=440 Hz, are used because they work well with harpsichords or chamber organs that can shift pitch by a semitone. These standards allow recorder players to perform with other musicians at pitches other than A=440 Hz.
Some recorder makers produce instruments at pitches other than the three standard ones mentioned. Others create recorders with interchangeable bodies that can be adjusted to different pitches.
Acoustics
The recorder makes sound like a whistle or an organ pipe. When played normally, the player blows air into the windway, a narrow channel in the head joint. This air flows across a gap called the window and hits a sharp edge called the labium. The air moves back and forth above and below the labium, creating vibrations inside the recorder’s body. These vibrations produce sound waves that travel outward from the window. The sound’s pitch is controlled by how the air vibrates inside the tube.
In recorders, like other woodwind instruments, the air inside acts like a vibrating string. This air can vibrate in different ways, creating multiple patterns of sound. These vibrations are not moving waves but stationary waves with areas of high and low pressure called nodes. The lowest and loudest vibration pattern determines the pitch people hear. Other vibrations create higher pitches called harmonics or overtones. Players often describe these pitches by the number of nodes in the air column. Notes with one node are in the first register, notes with two nodes in the second register, and so on. As more nodes form, fewer notes can be played in each register because of the physical limits of the recorder’s shape. On a Baroque recorder, the first, second, and third registers cover about a major ninth, a major sixth, and a minor third, respectively.
The recorder’s sound usually lacks high harmonics, and odd-numbered harmonics are more common than even-numbered ones. This makes it harder for people to hear the correct octave of the recorder’s sound, as noted by musicians like Praetorius.
Like organ pipes, the pitch of a recorder’s sound depends on how fast air moves across the labium. Faster air increases the pitch, up to a certain point.
Players can also change the pitch by altering the speed of air, a process called overblowing. When air moves very fast, lower vibration patterns become unstable, causing the instrument to shift to a higher register.
The shape of the recorder’s head and how the player blows into the windway affect the air stream. The recorder’s voicing is determined by factors like the windway’s size, shape, and edges, the window’s length, and the labium’s sharpness. Players control air speed and turbulence using their diaphragm and mouth.
Finger holes influence the recorder’s pitch. When holes are uncovered, the pitch rises because the air column becomes shorter. When holes are covered, the pitch lowers. For example, the fingering 01234567 leaves only the bell open, creating a low pressure node at the bell. The fingering 0123456 raises the pitch because the seventh hole and the bell both release air, creating a low pressure node at the seventh hole.
Recorders use forked fingerings to create notes not possible with simple hole uncovering. In the fingering 0123, air leaks from holes 4, 5, 6, and 7. The pressure inside the recorder is highest near hole 4 and decreases toward hole 7. Covering hole 4 affects the pitch more than covering lower holes. This allows the fingering 01235 to produce a pitch between 0123 and 01234. Forked fingerings help players adjust pitch and tone precisely.
The recorder’s pitch is also affected by partially covering holes, a technique used for tuning. This involves adjusting the size and shape of finger holes through carving or wax.
Partial covering is used to "leak" air from holes, destabilizing lower harmonics. This allows higher harmonics to sound at lower air pressures, similar to techniques in Ganassi’s Fontegara (1535). For example, leaking holes 0, 2, and 5 produces high notes like the 15th and 16th. On some Baroque recorders, the 17th can be produced by leaking holes 0, 1, and 2.
Technique
The design of the recorder has changed over 700 years, especially in how the fingers are used and the shape of the instrument. However, the way to play recorders of different sizes and from different time periods is very similar. Much of what is known about how to play the recorder comes from old books and manuals written between the 1500s and 1700s. The following explains the common ways to play the recorder across all time periods.
When playing the recorder normally, both hands hold the instrument. The fingers cover the holes or press the keys with the pads of the fingers: four fingers on the lower hand, and the index, middle, ring fingers, and thumb on the upper hand. In modern practice, the right hand is the lower hand, and the left hand is the upper hand, although this was not standard before the recorder became popular again in recent times.
The recorder is supported by the lips, which loosely seal around the beak of the instrument, the thumb of the lower hand, and, depending on the note played, by other fingers and the upper thumb. A practice found in many old fingering charts is using finger seven or eight to support the recorder when playing notes where covering this hole has little effect on the pitch (e.g., notes with many holes uncovered). Larger recorders may have a thumb rest or a neck strap for extra support and can use a bocal to direct air from the player's mouth to the windway.
Recorders are usually held at an angle between vertical and horizontal, with the position depending on the size and weight of the recorder and the player's preference.
Pitch is produced on the recorder by covering the holes while blowing into the instrument. Modern terminology uses numbers 1 through 7 to label the holes on the front of the instrument, starting with the hole closest to the beak, and the thumbhole is labeled as hole 0. At the most basic level, the fingering technique involves uncovering the holes from lowest to highest (e.g., uncovering hole 7, then 7 and 6, then 7, 6, and 5, etc.), which creates higher pitches. However, in practice, the uncovering of holes is not always sequential, and partially covering or uncovering holes is an important part of playing the recorder.
A forked fingering is a technique where an open hole has covered holes below it, meaning the uncovering of holes is not sequential. For example, the fingering 0123 (G5) is not a forked fingering, while 0123 56 (F♯5) is a forked fingering because the open hole 4 has holes 5 and 6 covered below it. Forked fingerings allow for small pitch adjustments that are not possible with sequential uncovering. For example, at the same air speed, the fingering 0123 5 sounds higher than 01234 but lower than 0123. Many standard recorder fingerings are forked. Forked fingerings can also be used to create very small pitch changes.
Forked fingerings have a different sound quality compared to non-forked fingerings and are generally considered weaker. Forked fingerings that sound slightly different or are slightly sharp or flat can be used as alternate fingerings. For example, the fingering 0123 has a slightly sharper forked variant 012 4567.
Partially covering the holes is an essential part of playing all recorders. This is sometimes called "leaking," "shading," "half-holing," or, in the case of the thumbhole, "pinching."
The main job of the thumbhole is to act as an octaving vent. When it is partially covered, the first vibration of the air column becomes unstable, causing the pitch to change. Most recorders require this for notes higher than a ninth above the lowest note. The player must adjust the thumb's position to keep these notes stable and in tune.
Partially opening the thumbhole can be done by sliding or rolling the thumb off the hole or by bending the thumb at the first knuckle. To partially uncover a covered hole, the player may slide the finger off the hole, bend or roll the finger away, gently lift the finger, or use a combination of these. To partially cover an open hole, the opposite actions are used.
Generally, partially opening a covered hole raises the pitch of the note, while partially closing an open hole lowers the pitch.
On most "baroque" modern recorders, the lower two fingers of the lower hand cover two holes each (called "double holes"). On most baroque recorders and earlier models, these fingers covered a single hole ("single holes"), but double holes are now standard for baroque-style modern recorders.
By covering one or both of these smaller holes, a player can produce notes a semitone and a minor third above the lowest note. These notes are possible on single-holed recorders only by partially covering those holes or covering the bell.
The open end of the instrument (the "bell") can be covered to create extra notes or effects. Since both hands are usually used to hold the recorder or cover holes, the bell is typically covered by bringing the end of the recorder to the leg or knee, achieved by bending the torso or raising the knee. In rare cases, instruments may have a key to cover the bell ("bell key"), operated by the pinky finger of the upper hand. Fingerings that cover the bell extend the recorder's playable range above and below the usual range.
The pitch and volume of the recorder sound depend on the speed of air traveling through the windway, which can be controlled by changing breath pressure and the shape of the vocal tract. The sound is also affected by the turbulence of air entering the recorder. Faster air in the windway produces a higher pitch. Blowing harder makes a note sound sharp, while blowing gently makes it sound flat. Knowing this and the recorder's tonal differences helps players stay in tune with other instruments. As mentioned earlier, blowing too hard can cause overblowing.
The way recorders are played using inhalation and exhalation is different from many other wind instruments because the recorder needs very little air pressure to make a sound, unlike reed or brass instruments.
Because of this, recorder players often need to produce long, controlled streams of air at very low pressure. The breathing technique focuses on controlling the release of air rather than maintaining diaphragmatic pressure.
Using the tongue to start and stop the air is called "articulation." The tongue has two main roles: controlling the start of the note (the attack) and the end or length of the note (legato or staccato). Articulations are similar to consonants. Any consonant that can be made with the tongue, mouth, and throat can be used on the recorder. Common articulation patterns include "du du du du" (single tonguing), "du gu du gu" (double tonguing), and "du g'll du g'll" (triple tonguing). The start of the note
History
Duct flutes and recorders are found in nearly every musical tradition worldwide. The oldest surviving duct flutes date back to the Neolithic period. Classifying early instruments has been difficult, but recorders are usually different from other duct flutes because of a thumb hole used to change pitch and seven finger holes. Early recorder playing is not well understood because few records from that time remain.
Today’s knowledge of medieval recorder shapes and structures comes from a few surviving instruments and artwork from that era.
Medieval recorders vary in design. The first discovered is the "Dordrecht recorder," made of fruitwood. It was found in 1940 in a well near Dordrecht, Netherlands. Since the house where it was found was occupied between 1335 and 1418, the recorder is dated to that time. It has a cylindrical shape about 11 mm wide and is 300 mm long. The block is still intact, but the labium is damaged, making the instrument unplayable. Both ends have tenons, suggesting lost fittings. Details about these parts are unclear, making it hard to recreate the instrument’s original form.
Another instrument, the "Göttingen recorder," was found in 1987 in Germany. It is made of fruitwood and is 256 mm long. Its bore is cylindrical but widens slightly before narrowing again near the seventh finger hole, then flares at the bottom. The finger holes taper outward, unlike later Baroque recorders. The top is damaged, and the block is missing. A reconstructed version by Hans Reiners produces a loud, rich sound with a range of two octaves. When the thumb hole and first three finger holes are covered, the pitch is about 450 Hz.
More medieval instruments and fragments have been found in the 21st century, including a 14th-century headjoint fragment from Germany, a birch recorder from Estonia, and a fruitwood recorder from Poland. Common features of these instruments include narrow cylindrical bores (except the Göttingen recorder), doubled seventh holes for the little finger (except the Estonian recorder), flat heads instead of narrow beaks, and seventh holes that produce a semitone instead of a tone. The Esslingen fragment has turnings similar to the Göttingen recorder. No complete instrument longer than 300 mm has been found, though the Esslingen fragment may belong to a larger recorder.
The spaced seventh holes were problematic and remained in later instruments. Wax was used to plug unused holes, as noted by Virdung in 1511. Adjustable footjoints developed during the Baroque period made these holes unnecessary.
Classifying duct flutes is complicated by recorders with seventh holes that produce a semitone instead of a tone. Chromatic notes are hard to play, requiring "half-holing." These instruments resemble six-holed flageolets but lack a thumb hole. Some experts suggest calling these instruments "improved flageolets" instead of recorders, as true recorders should produce a full tone when the seventh finger is lifted.
Despite debates, these instruments are likely early versions of later duct flutes. Consensus is unlikely due to limited historical records. However, surviving medieval recorders often have a semitone as their lowest interval. Historically, no single definition was needed to describe all recorder forms. Today, distinctions may still be useful.
Medieval paintings show cylindrical recorders, though they are stylized and not always similar to surviving instruments. The earliest known depiction is in a 14th-century painting titled "The Mocking of Christ" in Macedonia, where a man plays a cylindrical recorder. Another painting, "Virgin of the Angels" (c. 1390), shows angels playing recorders.
Angels were often shown playing recorders in medieval art, sometimes in groups of three, possibly symbolizing the Trinity or the three-part music of the time.
No music written for the recorder survives from before 1500. Paintings from the 15th century show groups of flutists or angels playing recorders, suggesting they were used in ensembles. Early music likely included vocal pieces.
Modern players sometimes use older instrumental music, such as monophonic works from the 13th to 15th centuries, or arrange keyboard music for recorder ensembles.
In the 16th century, recorders were well-documented, with many surviving instruments and matched sets. The first books describing the recorder were written during this time, including works by Virdung, Agricola, and Praetorius. However, understanding how the instrument was played and used during this period is still incomplete.
Manufacture
Recorder making was traditionally taught through apprenticeships. Important historical makers include the Rafi, Schnitzer, and Bassano families during the Renaissance; Stanesby (Jr. and Sr.), J.C. and J. Denner, Hotteterre, Bressan, Haka, Heitz, Rippert, Rottenburgh, Steenbergen, and Terton. Many of these makers also created other wind instruments, such as oboes and transverse flutes. Jacob Denner is credited with developing the clarinet from the chalumeau.
Recorder making declined as the instrument's popularity dropped in the late eighteenth century, ending the craft's direct transmission to modern times. Most duct flutes made in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries were designed for amateur or educational use and did not match the quality of earlier instruments.
Arnold Dolmetsch was the first to produce recorders commercially in the twentieth century, starting in 1919. His early recorders played at a low pitch similar to older models, but he did not aim for exact replicas. By the 1930s, his son Carl Dolmetsch led the Dolmetsch family business, mass-producing recorders at modern pitch with wide, straight windways. After World War II, the company began making bakelite recorders. These models were innovative for their time and helped standardize the English fingering system used today for baroque-style instruments, including the addition of doubled 6th and 7th holes, which are rare on older instruments.
In Germany, Peter Harlan began selling recorders from other makers in the 1920s, mainly for educational use in youth groups. He did not make recorders himself. After Harlan's success, makers like Adler and Mollenhauer started producing recorders commercially, increasing the instrument's popularity in Germany. These recorders differed greatly from older models, featuring large straight windways, modern pitch, altered fingering systems, and other changes.
In the second half of the twentieth century, more attention was given to historically accurate performance practices, and recorder makers aimed to copy the sound and style of older instruments. Friedrich von Huene, a German-American maker, was one of the first to study antique recorders in European collections and create instruments that closely resembled them. Von Huene and his Australian colleague, Frederick Morgan, worked to connect historical traditions with modern techniques, believing this approach produced the best instruments for playing ancient music.
Today, nearly all recorders claim to be based on antique models, and most current makers can trace their work to one of these early pioneers.
Modern recorder makers who work in individual workshops include Ammann, Blezinger, Bolton, Boudreau, Breukink (deceased), Brown, Coomber (discontinued), Cranmore, de Paolis, Ehlert, Holmblat, Meyer (deceased), Musch, Netsch, Prescott (discontinued), Rohmer, Takeyama, von Huene, Wenner, and Willman. French maker Philippe Bolton created an electroacoustic recorder and is among the last to offer mounted bell-keys and double bell-keys for tenor and alto recorders. These bell-keys allow the instrument to play over three octaves. A bell key was first made in 1953 by John W.F. Juritz, a physics teacher and bassoonist in Cape Town, though it was not patented. Carl Dolmetsch later reinvented the bell-key system in 1957 and used it publicly in 1958.
Use in schools
In the 20th century, Carl Orff included the recorder in his teaching method called Orff-Schulwerk. His five books, Musik für Kinder, published between 1950 and 1954, feature music for recorders, often played with other instruments.
Manufacturers began making recorders from bakelite and other modern plastics. These materials made recorders easier and cheaper to produce. Because of this, recorders are widely used in schools, as they are among the least expensive instruments to buy in large numbers.
During the 1940s and 1950s, a renewed interest in recorders was partly due to manufacturers using plastic injection molding to create many recorders quickly. These instruments were sold to schools for about one US dollar each (equivalent to $13 in 2025).
Recorders are simple to play at a basic level because they only require breath to make sound. The pitch is mainly controlled by how the player covers the holes with their fingers. However, using too much breath pressure can cause the pitch to become slightly higher than intended.
Many Japanese students are taught to play the recorder.
Recorder ensembles
The recorder is a popular instrument that people enjoy playing together. Many recorder players join large groups or small ensembles, and there is a wide range of music written for these groupings, including modern compositions. Using different sizes of recorders helps balance the limited range of each individual instrument. Music often includes four parts: soprano, alto, tenor, and bass, each played on a different recorder. Some compositions have more parts for each recorder and include notes for higher or lower instruments. A recorder made from a carrot is used by the London Vegetable Orchestra.