The double bass, also called the upright bass, acoustic bass, bull fiddle, Bass Fiddle, string bass, or simply the bass, is the largest and lowest-pitched stringed instrument in the modern symphony orchestra (except for rare instruments like the octobass). It has four or five strings and is built between the designs of the gamba (viol) and the violin family.

The bass is a regular part of the orchestra’s string section, which includes violins, violas, and cellos. It is also used in concert bands and appears in concertos, solo performances, and chamber music in Western classical music. The bass is used in many other styles, such as jazz, blues, rock and roll, rockabilly, country music, bluegrass, tango, folk music, and some film and video game soundtracks.

Scholars are still unsure about the exact history of the double bass, with some believing it evolved from the viol and others from the violin family.

As a transposing instrument, the bass is usually written one octave higher than its actual sound to avoid needing too many extra lines below the musical staff. The double bass is the only modern bowed string instrument tuned in fourths (like a bass guitar, viol, or the lowest four strings of a standard guitar), not fifths. Its strings are typically tuned to E1, A1, D2, and G2.

The double bass can be played by drawing a bow across the strings (arco), plucking the strings (pizzicato), or slapping the strings for certain rock and roll and rockabilly styles. It may also be played using other special techniques. In orchestral music and tango, both arco and pizzicato are used. In jazz, blues, and rockabilly, pizzicato is most common. Classical music and jazz rely on the instrument’s natural, unamplified sound, as does traditional bluegrass. In funk, blues, reggae, and similar genres, the double bass is often amplified to make its sound louder.

Terminology

A person who plays this instrument is called a "bassist," "double bassist," "double bass player," "contrabassist," "contrabass player," or "bass player." The terms "contrabass" and "double bass" describe the instrument's sound range and its use one octave lower than the cello. Originally, the double bass played the same notes as the cello, but later it developed its own separate parts. In classical music, the instrument is also called "contrabass" (from its Italian name, "contrabbasso"), "string bass" (to differentiate it from brass instruments like tubas in a concert band), or simply "bass."

In jazz, blues, rockabilly, and other non-classical genres, the instrument is often called the "upright bass," "standup bass," or "acoustic bass" to distinguish it from the electric bass guitar. In folk and bluegrass music, it is sometimes called a "bass fiddle" or "bass violin," though these names are less commonly used. The upright bass is not part of the violin family, but its design is very different from the acoustic bass guitar. The acoustic bass guitar is based on the electric bass guitar and is built like a larger version of an older instrument called the viola da gamba.

The double bass is sometimes mistakenly called the "violone," "bass violin," or "bass viol."

Description

A typical double bass is about 180 cm (6 feet) tall from the scroll to the endpin. The traditional "full-size" (4⁄4 size) bass is usually 74.8 inches (190 cm) long, while the more common 3⁄4 size bass, which is widely used today even by orchestral musicians, is about 71.6 inches (182 cm) long. Other sizes, such as 1⁄2 or 1⁄4, are also available to fit a player’s height and hand size. These size names do not mean the actual size compared to a full-size bass. For example, a 1⁄2 size bass is not half the length of a 4⁄4 bass but is only about 15% shorter.

Double basses are usually made from different types of wood. The back is often made from maple, the top from spruce, and the fingerboard from ebony. It is unclear if the double bass evolved from the viola da gamba or the violin, but it is traditionally grouped with the violin family. Although the double bass shares many construction features with other violin family instruments, it also includes characteristics found in older viol family instruments.

The open strings of a double bass are tuned to E1, A1, D2, and G2, the same as an acoustic or electric bass guitar. However, the wood’s resonance, combined with its violin-like structure and long scale length, gives the double bass a richer sound than a bass guitar. The double bass can also be played with a bow, and its fretless fingerboard allows for smooth glissandos and legatos.

Playing style

The double bass is a string instrument that can be played with a bow (arco) or by plucking the strings (pizzicato). When using a bow, the musician may hold it traditionally or strike the bow’s wood against the string. In orchestral music and tango, both bowing and plucking are used. In jazz, blues, and rockabilly, plucking is most common, except for some solos or parts in modern jazz that require bowing.

When the bow is used on the lowest notes of the double bass, the sound can be deep, heavy, or even threatening if played very loudly. The same low notes, when played softly, can create a rich, smooth background sound. Classical bass students learn various bowing techniques used by other string players, such as détaché, legato, staccato, sforzato, martelé, sul ponticello, sul tasto, tremolo, spiccato, and sautillé. Some techniques can be combined, like using sul ponticello with tremolo to create strange, ghost-like sounds. In orchestras, plucked notes are usually simple (whole notes, half notes, or quarter notes), not fast or complex.

Both bowed and plucked notes in classical music use vibrato, a technique where the left hand finger moves back and forth on the string, creating a wavy change in pitch. Vibrato adds expression to the music. Very loud, low notes are often played without vibrato to keep the bass sound clear. Mid- and high-pitched melodies usually have more vibrato. The speed and strength of vibrato change based on the musician’s emotional or musical needs.

In jazz, rockabilly, and similar styles, plucking is the main technique. In jazz and jump blues, bassists play fast, continuous plucked basslines for long periods. Jazz and rockabilly bassists develop advanced plucking skills to perform fast solos with complex rhythms. The plucked basslines played by professional jazz musicians are more difficult than those in classical music, which usually involve slower notes. In jazz, bassists often add "ghost notes" to basslines, which are quiet, rhythmic sounds that enhance the beat and add variety.

The double bass player stands or sits on a high stool, leaning the instrument against their body with the strings positioned comfortably. This posture is why the double bass has sloped shoulders, which help players reach the higher strings more easily. The sloped shoulders make the double bass different from other violin-family instruments, which have narrower shoulders.

History

The double bass is often considered a modern version of the violone, a large string instrument from Europe that appeared in the 15th century. Before the 20th century, many double basses had only three strings, unlike the five to six strings of viol family instruments or the four strings of violin family instruments. The double bass has a different shape and size compared to the violin and cello. For example, it is much deeper, with a greater distance from front to back than the violin. While the violin has rounded shoulders, most double basses have shoulders shaped with a sharper slope, similar to viol family instruments. Some very old double basses had their shoulders altered to make them easier to play with modern methods. Before these changes, their shoulder design was more like violin family instruments.

The double bass is the only modern bowed string instrument tuned in fourths, like a viol, instead of fifths. Its exact origins are still debated, and whether it is directly linked to the viol family is not fully decided.

In A New History of the Double Bass, Paul Brun claims the double bass originated as the bass of the violin family. He explains that although the double bass looks similar to the viola da gamba, its internal structure is nearly the same as violin family instruments and very different from viols.

Larry Hurst, a double bass professor, argues that the modern double bass does not belong to either the violin or viol families. He suggests the double bass likely began as a violone, the largest viol family instrument. Some of the earliest surviving double basses are violones with C-shaped sound holes that were later modified with modern features. Instruments like those made by Gasparo da Salò were originally 16th-century six-string violoni that were later changed into double basses.

Design

The double bass has several common shapes. The most common is the violin shape, which is shown in a labeled picture in the construction section. Another common shape is the viola da gamba form, which is shown in the header picture of this article. Less common shapes include the busetto shape and the rare guitar or pear shape. The back of the instrument can be curved like a violin or flat and angled like a viol.

The double bass has parts that are similar to violins, such as a wooden, carved bridge that holds the strings, two f-shaped holes, a tailpiece where the string ends are attached (with the tailpiece secured around the endpin mount), an ornamental scroll near the pegbox, a nut with grooves for the strings at the top of the fingerboard, and a thick sound post inside the instrument. The sound post helps transfer vibrations from the top of the instrument to the hollow body and supports the tension of the strings. Unlike violins, the double bass shares some features with the viol family, such as the violone, the largest and lowest-pitched viol. For example, the double bass is tuned in fourths, like a viol, instead of fifths, which is standard for violins. The shoulders of the double bass meet the neck in a curve, not a sharp angle. The bridge is curved, like on bowed instruments, to allow players to bow individual strings. A flat bridge would make it impossible to bow the A and D strings separately.

The double bass also has sloped shoulders and an angled back, which help players reach the upper parts of the instrument. Unlike violins, which use wooden pegs for tuning, the double bass uses metal machine tuners. Because there is no standard design, double basses can look and sound very different from one another.

The double bass is most similar to violins but shares some features with the violone, the largest viol. However, the double bass has four strings instead of six, and its fingerboard is not fretted. High-quality fingerboards are made of ebony, while cheaper ones may use other woods painted black. The fingerboard is curved, like the bridge, to allow players to bow individual strings. The fingerboard is slightly flattened under the E string, a feature called the Romberg bevel. Most fingerboards cannot be adjusted by players; only a luthier (a maker or repairer of string instruments) can make changes. A few expensive professional basses have adjustable fingerboards with a screw mechanism.

The double bass uses metal machine heads and gears for tuning, unlike violins, violas, and cellos, which use wooden pegs. Turning the key on the tuning machine tightens or loosens the string, changing the pitch. This system eliminates the need for fine tuners on the tailpiece, which are used on violins, violas, and cellos. However, some bassists use fine tuners for instruments with a low C extension, where the pulley system may not adjust the string tension effectively. At the bottom of the double bass is a thick, strong endpin, which is more robust than a cello’s endpin because the double bass is heavier.

Professional double basses are often made of maple (back, neck, ribs), spruce (top), and ebony (fingerboard, tailpiece). The tailpiece may be made of other materials. Less expensive models use laminated (layered) wood for the top, back, and ribs, or hybrid models with a laminated back and a carved solid wood top. Some modern basses are made of willow, fiberglass, or carbon fiber.

Laminated basses are popular in schools, youth orchestras, and for folk and rock music because they are durable and resistant to humidity and heat. Hybrid models are less costly and more durable than fully carved basses.

Inside the double bass, the soundpost and bass bar are important parts. These are not glued but held in place by string tension. If the soundpost falls out, a luthier must reinsert it using tools through the f-holes. The soundpost’s position is critical for the instrument’s sound. Bridges are carved from a single piece of wood to fit the top of the instrument. Cheaper student models may only be sanded to fit. Professional basses may have ornately carved bridges. Some professional basses have adjustable bridges with a screw mechanism to change the string height based on humidity or temperature.

Mechanism of sound production

Because the strings are small in size, they do not move much air and cannot create much sound by themselves. The energy from the vibrations of the strings needs to be passed to the air around the bass. To do this, the strings cause the bridge to vibrate, and the bridge then causes the top surface of the bass to vibrate. The bridge receives vibrations with very little movement but strong force changes caused by the strings' changing tension. These vibrations are changed into larger movements by the bridge and the body of the bass. The bridge converts the strong force and small movements into weaker force but larger movements on the top of the bass. The top is connected to the back of the bass through a sound post, so the back also vibrates. Both the top and back help send the vibrations into the air and help match how the string vibrates to how sound moves through air.

Specific sound and tone production mechanism

The acoustic bass is a type of instrument that does not have frets. When the strings are plucked or bowed, they vibrate against the fingerboard near where the musician presses them. This buzzing sound is what makes the note sound unique.

Pitch

The lowest note of a double bass is an E1 (on standard four-string basses) at about 41 Hz or a C1 (≈33 Hz), or sometimes a B0 (≈31 Hz), when five strings are used. This is within about an octave above the lowest sound most people can hear as a distinct pitch. The top of the instrument’s fingerboard range is usually near D5, two octaves and a fifth above the open pitch of the G string (G2), as shown in the range illustration at the beginning of this article. Playing beyond the end of the fingerboard can be done by pulling the string slightly to the side.

Double bass symphony parts sometimes ask performers to play harmonics (also called flageolet tones), where the bassist lightly touches the string—without pressing it onto the fingerboard in the usual way—at the location of a note and then plucks or bows the note. Bowed harmonics are used in modern music for their "glassy" sound. Both natural harmonics and artificial harmonics, where the thumb stops the note and the octave or other harmonic is activated by lightly touching the string at the relative node point, greatly extend the instrument’s range. Natural and artificial harmonics are used in many virtuoso concertos for the double bass.

Orchestral parts from the standard Classical repertoire rarely require the double bass to play beyond a two-octave and a minor third range, from E1 to G3, with occasional A3s in the standard repertoire (an exception is Orff’s Carmina Burana, which requires three octaves and a perfect fourth). The upper limit of this range is much higher in 20th- and 21st-century orchestral parts (e.g., Prokofiev’s Lieutenant Kijé Suite (c. 1933) bass solo, which includes notes as high as D4 and E♭4). The upper range a skilled solo player can reach using natural and artificial harmonics is hard to define, as it depends on the player’s skill. The high harmonic in the range illustration at the beginning of this article may be considered representative, not a strict rule.

Five-string instruments have an extra string, usually tuned to a low B below the E string (B0). Rarely, a higher string is added, tuned to the C above the G string (C3). Four-string instruments may include a C extension, lowering the E string’s range to C1 (sometimes B0).

Traditionally, the double bass is a transposing instrument. Since much of its range lies below the standard bass clef, it is written an octave higher than it sounds to avoid using too many ledger lines below the staff. When double bass players and cellists perform from a combined bass-cello part, as in many Mozart and Haydn symphonies, they play in octaves, with the basses one octave below the cellos. This transposition applies even when bass players read tenor or treble clefs (used in solo playing and some orchestral parts). The tenor clef is also used for cello and low brass parts. Using tenor or treble clefs avoids excessive ledger lines above the staff when notating the instrument’s upper range. Other notation traditions exist. Italian solo music is typically written at the sounding pitch, and the "old" German method sounded an octave below the notation, except in the treble clef, where the music was written at pitch.

Tuning

The double bass is usually tuned in fourths, unlike other string instruments in the orchestra, which are tuned in fifths. For example, a violin has strings tuned from lowest to highest as G–D–A–E. The standard tuning for a double bass, from lowest to highest, is E–A–D–G, starting with the E below the second low C (concert pitch). This tuning is the same as a bass guitar and is one octave lower than the four lowest strings of a standard guitar. Before the 19th century, some double basses had only three strings to reduce tension, which helped produce a better solo tone and louder sound. Giovanni Bottesini (1821–1889) preferred the three-stringed instrument popular in Italy at the time because it was considered more sonorous. Today, some cobla bands in Catalonia still use traditional three-string double basses tuned A–D–G.

In classical music, some notes are lower than the lowest note on a standard double bass. Notes below low E appear often in later arrangements of Baroque music. During the Classical era, the double bass usually played the cello part an octave lower, sometimes requiring notes as low as C. In the Romantic era and the 20th century, composers like Wagner, Mahler, Busoni, and Prokofiev also wrote notes below low E.

To play these low notes, musicians can use several methods. Those with standard four-string double basses (E–A–D–G) may play the notes below E an octave higher or transpose the entire passage up an octave if needed. Alternatively, the low E string can be tuned down to D or C. Some four-string basses have a "low-C extension" added to the fingerboard. Another option is using a five-string double bass, with the extra string tuned to C or B (three octaves and a semitone below middle C). Many European orchestras use five-string basses.

Most professional orchestral players use four-string double basses with a C extension. This extension adds extra length to the fingerboard, allowing the lowest string to be tuned down to C (one octave below the lowest note on a cello). Occasionally, the lowest string may be tuned to B, as some orchestral pieces, like Respighi's The Pines of Rome, require this note. Some players also use a low B extension for even lower notes.

Extensions can be simple or complex. Simple extensions have a locking nut or "gate" for the E note. To play the extended notes, the musician reaches under the scroll to press the string against the fingerboard. This method allows for adjustable intonation but can make it harder to switch quickly between low and regular notes. Another type uses wooden "fingers" or "gates" that lock the string in place for specific notes, such as C♯, D, or E. This is useful for repeating notes like low D. The most complex system uses mechanical levers, similar to a bassoon, to press the strings. These systems can lock notes in place but may create unwanted metallic sounds.

Once a mechanical or wooden extension is locked, it becomes difficult to make small pitch adjustments or glissando effects, which are easier with a hand-fingered extension.

Five-string double basses, which usually have the lowest string tuned to B, can be extended further with a two-semitone extension for a low A or a rare low G extension.

Some bass players tune their instruments in fifths, like a cello but an octave lower (C–G–D–A). This tuning was used by jazz musician Red Mitchell and some classical players, such as Canadian bassist Joel Quarrington. Advocates say this matches the tuning of other string instruments (violin, viola, cello) and provides a wider pitch range. Some five-string basses add a high E string (C–G–D–A–E). Others use a four-string instrument with G–D–A–E tuning, omitting the low C but adding a high E. The Berlioz–Strauss Treatise on Instrumentation (1844) mentions that orchestras should include both four-string basses tuned in fifths and fourths to increase the orchestra's sound.

In classical solo performances, the double bass is often tuned a whole tone higher (F♯–B–E–A), called "solo tuning." Solo tuning strings are thinner than regular strings, and different string sets are used for solo or orchestral tuning. Some historical solo music uses a tuning a minor third higher, as in Bottesini’s works. Concertos like Koussevitsky’s are available in both solo and orchestral tunings. Solo strings can be tuned down for orchestral use but may lack projection or stability. Modern gut strings respond well to both tunings with proper care.

A rare tuning used in some Eastern European countries is (A–D–G–C), omitting the low E and adding a high C string. The tololoche in Mexico is a small double bass, but details about it are not fully explained in the text.

Playing and performance considerations

Double bassists can play while standing or sitting. The height of the instrument is adjusted by changing the length of the endpin so the player can reach the strings easily with the bow or plucking hand. Some standing players adjust the endpin so their first finger is level with their eyes, but there is no strict rule for this. Players who sit usually use a stool that is about the same height as the inseam of their trousers.

Traditionally, double bassists stood to play solo music and sat when playing in an orchestra or opera pit. Today, most players are skilled in only one position. Some soloists sit, like Joel Quarrington, Jeff Bradetich, and Thierry Barbé, while some orchestral bassists stand.

When playing high notes (above G3, the G below middle C), the player moves their hand forward from behind the neck and flattens it. The side of the thumb is used to press the string. This technique, called thumb position, is also used on the cello. Most players do not use the fourth (little) finger in thumb position because it is too weak to make clear sounds. However, some modern music may require the little finger for special effects.

Rockabilly style requires fast plucking, especially when "slapping" the strings against the fingerboard. Playing the double bass is physically demanding because the strings are tight and the space between notes is large. Players must stretch their fingers apart and move their hands often to reach notes. Precise finger placement is needed to play the correct pitch. Players with shorter arms or smaller hands may find it harder to play, especially in the lowest range. However, techniques like thumb position and using lighter strings have made the instrument easier to play.

Bass parts in music usually have fewer fast notes, double stops, or large jumps in pitch. These parts are often given to cellists because the cello is smaller and easier to play these techniques.

Although the double bass is large, it is not as loud as other instruments because it plays low notes. In an orchestra, four to eight bassists often play the same part together to make the sound louder. Some orchestras have up to ten or twelve bassists, but this is uncommon due to cost.

When writing music for the bass in orchestras or chamber groups, composers usually keep the other instruments quiet so the bass can be heard clearly. In classical music, amplification is rarely used. However, when a bassist performs a solo with an orchestra, a small amount of amplification called acoustic enhancement may be used. Some people in the classical music world disagree about using amplification, saying it changes the natural sound of the instrument.

In genres like jazz and blues, bassists use amplifiers to make their sound louder. A piezoelectric pickup connects to the amplifier with a 1/4-inch cable. Bluegrass and jazz players use less amplification than blues, psychobilly, or jam band players. In these cases, loud sounds from other instruments can cause feedback, which is a problem because the bass has a large surface area. To fix this, some bassists use special devices or play instruments like the electric upright bass, which is less likely to cause feedback. Others lower the volume or move farther from their amplifier.

In rockabilly and psychobilly, slapping the strings is an important technique. Since piezoelectric pickups do not capture the sound of slapping well, bassists in these genres often use both a piezoelectric pickup (for low tones) and a small microphone (to capture the slapping sound). These two sounds are mixed together before being sent to the amplifier.

The double bass is large and fragile, so it is hard to carry. Most bassists use soft cases called gig bags to protect the instrument. These range from simple, thin cases for students to thick, padded cases for professionals. Some bassists use hard cases made of strong materials like carbon fiber or Kevlar. These are expensive and not often used except by touring musicians.

Double bass players use many accessories. In orchestral music, three types of mutes are used: a wooden mute that slides onto the bridge, a rubber mute that attaches to the bridge, and a wire mute with brass weights that fits onto the bridge. Players use these mutes when the music instructions say "with mute" (con sordino) and remove them when it says "without mute" (senza sordino). Mutes make the sound quieter and darker. A heavy rubber mute is used for quiet practice.

A quiver is a leather pouch that holds the bow. It is attached to the bridge and tailpiece with ties or straps and is used when playing plucked notes.

A wolf tone eliminator is used to reduce unwanted vibrations that can cause a dissonant sound called a wolf tone. It consists of a rubber tube and a metal sleeve with a slot. The device is attached to the string with a screw and nut. Moving the sleeve along the string changes the sound. Wolf tones happen when the strings below the bridge vibrate at the same pitch as notes being played, causing a harsh, unpleasant sound.

Classical repertoire

The double bass was a popular solo instrument in the 18th century, and many composers from that time wrote music for it. At that time, the double bass was often called the "Violone," and it was tuned differently in various regions. One popular tuning was called "Viennese tuning" (A1–D2–F#2–A2). In some cases, the instrument had five or even six strings (F1–A1–D2–F#2–A2). Leopold Mozart, in his book Violinschule, noted that the five-string violone made difficult musical passages easier to play and that he heard beautiful performances of concertos, trios, and solos.

The earliest known concerto for the double bass was written by Joseph Haydn around 1763, but it was lost in a fire. Carl Ditters von Dittersdorf composed two concertos and a Sinfonia Concertante for the double bass and viola. Other composers from this period who wrote concertos include Johann Baptist Wanhal, Franz Anton Hoffmeister (3 concertos), Leopold Kozeluch, Anton Zimmermann, Antonio Capuzzi, Wenzel Pichl (2 concertos), and Johannes Matthias Sperger (18 concertos). These composers were well-known in their time but are less familiar to modern audiences. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart’s concert aria Per questa bella mano includes challenging parts for the double bass and is still popular today.

Over time, the double bass changed to meet the needs of orchestras that required lower notes and a louder sound. In the mid-to-late 18th century, leading bassists like Josef Kämpfer, Friedrich Pischelberger, and Johannes Matthias Sperger used the "Viennese" tuning. Johann Hindle, who composed a concerto for the double bass, introduced tuning the instrument in fourths, which helped the double bass become more effective in solo performances. Domenico Dragonetti, a famous bassist and friend of Haydn and Beethoven, played in concerts across Europe. His performances may have influenced Beethoven to write separate parts for the double bass in his symphonies, such as the third movement of the Fifth Symphony and the last movement of the Ninth Symphony.

Dragonetti wrote ten concertos for the double bass and many solo pieces for bass and piano. In 1824, Rossini composed a Duetto for cello and double bass for Dragonetti and the cellist David Salomons. Dragonetti often used a three-string double bass tuned G–D–A. This tuning was popular in the 19th century because it reduced pressure on the instrument’s wooden top, creating a more resonant sound. The thick gut strings used during this time were hard to tune and play.

In the 19th century, Giovanni Bottesini, called the "Paganini of the double bass," wrote concertos in the style of Italian opera. These pieces required fast, difficult passages and high notes, even using harmonics. Many 19th- and early 20th-century bassists found these compositions very challenging, but they are now frequently performed. A group of Czech bassists, including Franz Simandl and Josef Hrabe, also developed techniques and teaching methods still used today.

Serge Koussevitzky, a famous conductor and bassist, helped popularize the double bass as a solo instrument in the early 20th century. Improvements like steel strings and better instrument setups allowed bassists to play at a higher level. Many modern composers, such as Nikos Skalkottas, Eduard Tubin, and Frank Proto, wrote concertos for the double bass in the 20th century.

John Cage included a solo for the double bass in his work Concert for Piano and Orchestra, which can be played alone or with other parts. His other works, like Variations I and Fontana Mix, can also be arranged for a solo double bass.

From the 1960s to the late 20th century, Gary Karr promoted the double bass as a solo instrument and commissioned many new works. He played Koussevitzky’s famous double bass for 40 years before giving it to the International Society of Bassists. Bertram Turetzky also commissioned over 300 double bass compositions.

In the 1970s through the 1990s, composers like Nino Rota, Alan Ridout, and Frank Proto wrote concertos for the double bass. In the 21st century, composers such as Frank Proto, Kalevi Aho, and John Harbison continued writing for the instrument.

Other works for the double bass include Reinhold Glière’s Intermezzo and Tarantella and Praeludium and Scherzo for double bass and piano, Paul Hindemith’s Double Bass Sonata, and Frank Proto’s Sonata "1963". Mieczysław Weinberg wrote a Sonata No. 1 for double bass, and Giacinto Scelsi composed Nuits and Maknongan for the instrument.

Use in jazz

Beginning around 1890, early New Orleans jazz ensembles played a mix of marches, ragtime, and Dixieland music. These groups started as marching bands, with a tuba or sousaphone (or sometimes a bass saxophone) providing the bass line. As jazz music moved to bars and brothels, the upright bass gradually replaced these wind instruments by the 1920s. Many early bassists played both the brass bass (tuba) and string bass, as these instruments were often called at the time. Bassists played improvised "walking" bass lines—notes based on scales and chord changes that followed the music’s structure.

An unamplified upright bass is usually the quietest instrument in a jazz band. Because of this, many bassists in the 1920s and 1930s used the slap style, slapping and pulling the strings to create a rhythmic "slap" sound against the fingerboard. This style helped the bass be heard more clearly in a band and on early sound recordings, as recording equipment at that time struggled to capture low frequencies.

Jazz bass players are expected to create an accompaniment line or solo that matches a given chord progression. They must also know the rhythmic patterns used in different styles, such as Afro-Cuban. In big bands, bassists must read written bass lines, as some arrangements include specific parts for the bass.

Many upright bass players have shaped the development of jazz. Examples include Jimmy Blanton, who played with Duke Ellington, and Oscar Pettiford, who helped popularize the upright bass in bebop. Paul Chambers, who worked with Miles Davis on the Kind of Blue album, was one of the first jazz bassists to play bebop solos with a bow. Terry Plumeri advanced the use of arco (bowed) solos, achieving a clear, vocal-like tone. Charlie Haden, known for his work with Ornette Coleman, defined the role of the bass in Free Jazz.

Other important bassists include Ray Brown, Slam Stewart, and Niels-Henning Ørsted Pedersen. Stewart, who was favored by bebop musicians, used a bow and hummed octaves during his solos. Charles Mingus was both a respected composer and a bassist known for his technical skill and strong sound. Scott LaFaro changed how the bass was played by focusing on interactive, conversational melodies instead of steady rhythms behind soloists. Since the 1950s, when bass amplifiers became available, jazz bassists have used amplification to increase the instrument’s volume.

Although electric bass guitars were used in jazz as early as 1951, they became more common in the 1970s. Bassists like Bob Cranshaw, Jaco Pastorius, and Stanley Clarke began using the electric bass instead of the upright bass. However, the upright bass remains the main instrument in most jazz styles, except for jazz fusion and Latin-influenced jazz. The upright bass has a different sound than the electric bass because its strings are not stopped by metal frets, allowing for a continuous range of tones. Electric basses usually have solid wood bodies, and their sound comes from electronic amplification, unlike the upright bass, which relies on acoustic reverberation.

Examples of the upright bass’s sound and use in jazz can be heard on recordings such as Emerald Tears (1978) by Dave Holland and Emergence (1986) by Miroslav Vitouš. Holland also recorded an album titled Music from Two Basses (1971), where he plays with Barre Phillips and sometimes switches to cello.

Use in bluegrass and country

The string bass is the most commonly used bass instrument in bluegrass music and is usually plucked, though some modern bluegrass bassists also use a bow. The bluegrass bassist is part of the rhythm section and is responsible for keeping a steady beat, whether the music is fast, slow, in 4/4 or 4/4 time. The bass also helps maintain the chord progression and harmony. The Engelhardt-Link (formerly Kay) brands of plywood laminate basses have been popular choices for bluegrass bassists for many years. Most bluegrass bassists use the 3/4 size bass, but the full-size and 5/8 size basses are also used.

Before bluegrass music became popular, traditional music was often accompanied by the cello. Cellist Natalie Haas notes that in the United States, old photographs and recordings show American string bands with cello. However, the cello became less common in folk music and was later associated with orchestras. The cello returned to bluegrass music in the 1990s and early 2000s. Some modern bluegrass bands prefer the electric bass because it is easier to transport than the large, fragile upright bass. However, the electric bass has a different sound compared to the upright bass. Many musicians believe the upright bass has a slower attack and a woody, percussive tone that gives it a more "earthy" or "natural" sound, especially when gut strings are used.

Common rhythms in bluegrass bass playing involve plucking on beats 1 and 3 in 4/4 time, beats 1 and 2 in 4/4 time, and the downbeat in 3/4 time (waltz time). Bluegrass bass lines are usually simple, often staying on the root and fifth of each chord throughout a song. There are two main exceptions to this rule. Bluegrass bassists often play a diatonic walkup or walkdown, where they play every beat of a bar for one or two bars, usually when there is a chord change. Additionally, if a bass player is given a solo, they may play a walking bass line with a note on every beat or use a pentatonic scale-influenced bassline.

An early bluegrass bassist to gain recognition was Howard Watts (also known as Cedric Rainwater), who played with Bill Monroe’s Blue Grass Boys starting in 1944. Classical bassist Edgar Meyer has performed in newgrass, old-time, jazz, and other genres. In April 2005, Union Station bassist Barry Bales said, "My all-time favorite is Todd Phillips. He brought a completely different way of thinking about and playing bluegrass."

The upright bass was the standard bass instrument in traditional country western music. While the upright bass is still sometimes used in country music, the electric bass has mostly replaced it, especially in pop-influenced country styles from the 1990s and 2000s, such as new country.

Slap-style bass is sometimes used in bluegrass. When bluegrass bass players pull the string until it hits the fingerboard or strike the strings against the fingerboard, it creates a high-pitched, percussive "clack" or "slap" sound that contrasts with the low-pitched bass notes, similar to the sounds of a tap dancer. Slapping is sometimes debated in the bluegrass community. Even experts like Mike Bub advise, "Don’t slap on every gig" or in songs where it is not appropriate. Bluegrass bassists who use slap-style often play less on recordings than in live performances. Bub and his mentor Jerry McCoury rarely use slap bass on recordings. Some bassists, like Jack Cook, use slap bass on faster songs, while others, such as Gene Libbea, Missy Raines, Jenny Keel, and Barry Bales, rarely use it.

Bluegrass bassist Mark Schatz, who teaches slap bass in his Intermediate Bluegrass Bass DVD, notes that slap bass "has not been stylistically very predominant in the music I have recorded." He explains that "Even in traditional bluegrass, slap bass only appears occasionally, and most of what I’ve done has been on the more contemporary side of that (Tony Rice, Tim O’Brien)." Schatz says he would be "more likely to use it [slap] in a live situation than on a recording—for a solo or to highlight a specific part of a song or tune where I wouldn’t be overshadowing someone’s solo." Another bluegrass method, Learn to Play Bluegrass Bass by Earl Gately, also teaches slap bass techniques. German bassist Didi Beck plays rapid triplet slaps, as shown in this video.

Use in popular music

In the early 1950s, the upright bass was the main bass instrument in the new style of rock and roll music. Marshall Lytle of Bill Haley & His Comets was one example of a musician who played this instrument. In the 1940s, a new type of dance music called rhythm and blues began to develop. This style combined elements from earlier blues and swing music. Louis Jordan, who was the first person to innovate this style, included an upright bass in his group, the Tympany Five.

The upright bass remained an important part of pop music groups throughout the 1950s. Rock and roll music was largely based on rhythm and blues, with influences also coming from jazz, country, and bluegrass. However, upright bass players faced challenges in these settings. They had to compete with louder instruments, such as horns and later electric guitars, which made the bass parts hard to hear. The upright bass is difficult to amplify in loud concert settings because it can produce loud noises called feedback. Additionally, the upright bass is large and hard to transport, which created problems for touring bands. In some groups, the slap bass was used as a percussion instrument instead of a drummer. For example, Bill Haley & His Saddlemen, the earlier group of the Comets, used slap bass for rhythm in recordings like "Rock the Joint" and "Rocket 88" until late 1952.

In 1951, Leo Fender introduced the Precision Bass, the first commercially successful electric bass guitar. The electric bass was easier to amplify because of its built-in magnetic pickups. It was also easier to carry, as it was only slightly longer than an electric guitar. The metal frets on the electric bass made it simpler to play in tune compared to the upright bass. During the 1960s and 1970s, bands played louder music in larger venues. The electric bass could produce the strong, amplified sound needed for these performances, while the upright bass became less common in popular music.

The upright bass returned to popular music in the mid-1980s, partly because of a renewed interest in older folk and country music styles, which were part of the roots rock and Americana trends. In the 1990s, improvements in pickups and amplifiers for acoustic upright and horizontal basses made it easier for musicians to achieve clear, amplified sounds. Some bands, such as the Barenaked Ladies, chose to use upright basses instead of electric basses to shape their sound. The trend of "unplugged" performances on MTV, where rock bands used only acoustic instruments, also helped increase public interest in upright basses and acoustic bass guitars.

Jim Creeggan of Barenaked Ladies primarily plays the upright bass, though he has increasingly used electric bass over time. Chris Wyse of the alternative rock group Owl uses both electric and double bass. Athol Guy of the Australian folk/pop group The Seekers plays an upright bass. Shannon Birchall of the Australian folk-rock group the John Butler Trio uses upright basses extensively, including performing long live solos in songs like "Betterman." On the 2008 album In Ear Park by the indie/pop band Department of Eagles, a bowed upright bass is prominently featured in the songs "Teenagers" and "In Ear Park." The Norwegian ompa-rock band Kaizers Orchestra uses the upright bass exclusively in both live performances and recordings.

The French contemporary pop duo "What a Day" uses a double bass with extended pizzicato techniques, combining it with vocals and typewriter sounds. Hank Williams III’s bass players, including Jason Brown, Joe Buck, and Zach Shedd, have used upright basses for recordings and live performances during the country and Hellbilly sets of his shows, switching to electric bass for the Assjack set.

The late 1970s rockabilly-punk genre of psychobilly continued and expanded the rockabilly tradition of slap bass. Bassists such as Kim Nekroman and Geoff Kresge have developed techniques to play fast slap bass, effectively turning the bass into a percussion instrument.

Modern playing styles

In popular music styles, the bass instrument is often played using amplification and almost always plucked with the fingers, a method called pizzicato. The way players use their fingers to pluck the strings can vary depending on the musician and the type of music. For example, some players use the sides of one, two, or three fingers to create a stronger, more solid sound, especially when playing slow, melodic pieces or steady basslines. Others use the tips of their fingers to play fast, intricate solos or to pluck softly for quieter songs. Amplification helps musicians control the instrument’s sound because amplifiers have controls that adjust the balance of different sound frequencies, such as emphasizing low tones and reducing high tones to minimize finger noise.

An acoustic bass without amplification has a limited range of sound because its hollow body cannot produce very low pitches as clearly as higher pitches. Using an amplifier and equalization tools allows the bassist to enhance the low frequencies, changing how the instrument sounds. Amplification also increases the instrument’s sustain, which is helpful for playing long, held notes in ballads or melodic solos.

In traditional jazz, swing, polka, rockabilly, and psychobilly music, the bass is sometimes played in a style called slap. This involves striking the strings against the fingerboard between main notes to create a drum-like, percussive sound. The main notes are either played normally or by pulling the string away from the fingerboard and releasing it so it bounces back, creating a sharp, percussive effect along with the intended pitch. Some skilled players use this technique to add complex rhythms and fast, intricate patterns to their playing.

The slap style may have influenced electric bass guitar players. Starting in the mid-1960s, musicians like Larry Graham of Sly and the Family Stone developed a technique called slap and pop. This method uses the thumb of the plucking hand to strike the string for a slapping sound while allowing the note to ring, and the index or middle finger to pull the string back so it hits the fretboard, creating a popping sound. In Motown music, bassist James Jamerson often used a double bass to enhance electric bass recordings during post-production, and sometimes used electric bass to improve double bass recordings as well.

Double bassists

Here is a rewritten version of the text at a 6th-grade reading level, keeping all factual content and using formal, educational language:

• Domenico Dragonetti (1763–1846) was a highly skilled musician, composer, and conductor.
• Giovanni Bottesini (1821–1889) was a highly skilled musician, composer, and conductor.
• Franz Simandl (1840–1912) was a highly skilled musician, composer, and teacher.
• Édouard Nanny (1872–1943) was a highly skilled musician and composer.
• Serge Koussevitzky (1874–1951) was a highly skilled musician, composer, and conductor.

• François Rabbath (1931–) is a highly skilled musician and composer.
• Gary Karr (1941–2025) was a highly skilled musician.
• Edgar Meyer (1960–) is a highly skilled musician, composer, and teacher.

Some of the most influential modern classical double bass players are known for both their performances and their teaching methods. For example, Oscar G. Zimmerman (1910–1987) taught at the Eastman School of Music and at the Interlochen National Music Camp in Michigan for 44 summers. François Rabbath (born 1931) created a new method for learning the double bass that divides the fingerboard into six sections. Gary Karr, a teacher and performer, was known for his solo skills. Other notable musicians include Teppo Hauta-aho (born 1941), Fernando Grillo, and Edgar Meyer. For more names, see the List of contemporary classical double bass players.

Important jazz bassists from the 1940s to the 1950s include Jimmy Blanton (1918–1942), who played with Duke Ellington’s band before his death from tuberculosis and introduced new musical ideas for the double bass. Ray Brown (1926–2002) played with famous musicians like Dizzy Gillespie and Charlie Parker and was part of the Modern Jazz Quartet. Ron Carter (born 1937) appeared on over 3,500 recordings, including albums by Thelonious Monk and Wes Montgomery. Paul Chambers (1935–1969) was part of the Miles Davis Quintet and played on the famous jazz album Kind of Blue.

In the 1960s and later, new styles of jazz and rock music influenced many bassists. Charles Mingus (1922–1979) was also a composer and bandleader who combined different music styles. Charlie Haden (1937–2014) played with saxophonist Ornette Coleman and was part of the Liberation Music Orchestra. Eddie Gómez and George Mraz improved the way the double bass is played with their techniques. Stanley Clarke (born 1951) is known for his skill on both the upright and electric bass. Terry Plumeri is noted for his ability to play the double bass like a horn and produce a vocal-like sound.

In the 1990s and early 2000s, Christian McBride (born 1972) played with many famous musicians and released an album called Vertical Vision in 2003. Esperanza Spalding (born 1984) won a Grammy for Best New Artist at age 27.

Edgar Meyer is also known for his work in bluegrass and newgrass music. Todd Phillips is another well-known bluegrass bassist. Famous rockabilly bassists include Bill Black, Marshall Lytle (with Bill Haley & His Comets), and Lee Rocker (with the Stray Cats).

Notable rockabilly and psychobilly performers from the 1990s and early 2000s include Scott Owen (from The Living End), Jimbo Wallace (from Reverend Horton Heat), Kim Nekroman (Nekromantix), Patricia Day (HorrorPops), and Geoff Kresge (Tiger Army). Willie Dixon (1915–1992) was a famous upright bassist, songwriter, and producer who worked with Chuck Berry. Many rockabilly bands, such as El Rio Trio from the Netherlands, also use the double bass in their music. For more information, see the List of double bassists in popular music.

Pedagogy and training

The way people are taught to play the double bass changes depending on the type of music and the country. In classical music, teaching the double bass has been around for many years. Students use books, exercises, and studies to learn how to use their left hand for accuracy and their right hand for bowing. Teaching methods differ by country. For example, France uses the Édouard Nanny method, and Germany uses the Franz Simandl method. In classical training, most lessons for the right hand focus on making good bowing sounds, and less time is spent on plucking sounds.

In genres like jazz and blues, where plucking (called pizzicato) is used more often, students spend more time learning different plucking styles. In jazz, bassists learn to use the sides of their fingers for deep, full sounds in slow songs, the tips of their fingers for fast playing, and techniques to create short, percussive sounds by plucking muted strings.

Classical and jazz music have the most organized training systems. In classical music, children can start private lessons and play in youth orchestras. Teens who want to become professional classical bassists can study at colleges, conservatories, or universities. Colleges offer certificates and diplomas in bass performance.

Conservatories, which are common in France and Quebec, provide lessons and opportunities to play in amateur orchestras. Universities offer programs that lead to bachelor's, master's, and doctorate degrees in double bass performance. Other training includes summer camps and festivals where students can play different types of music.

A bachelor's degree in bass performance takes four years and includes lessons, orchestra experience, and classes in music history, theory, and other subjects like English. Students often perform solo recitals, such as playing concertos or Baroque music.

A master's degree in double bass includes private lessons, ensemble experience, and classes in music history and theory. Students also perform recitals. A master's degree is often needed to teach double bass at a university or conservatory.

A doctorate in double bass, called a Doctor of Musical Arts, is for advanced study. It requires more than 54 credit hours beyond a master's degree. Admission is very selective, and students must pass exams in music history, theory, and perform recitals. They also write a dissertation and complete advanced coursework.

In the early days of jazz, bassists often learned informally or through classical training, like Ron Carter and Charles Mingus. In the 1980s and 1990s, colleges started offering degrees in jazz performance. Students take individual lessons, play in small groups and big bands, and study music history and theory. Jazz programs focus on different styles, such as Swing, Bebop, and fusion, and teach skills like improvisation and composing.

In genres like blues, rockabilly, and psychobilly, training is less formal. There are no degrees in blues bass performance or conservatories for rockabilly. However, books, DVDs, and private lessons are available. Some blues or rockabilly bassists may have learned through classical or jazz training. In genres like tango, which use both bowing and plucking, bassists often come from classical or jazz backgrounds.

Careers

Careers for double bass players can be very different depending on the type of music and the place where they live. Most bassists make money by performing and teaching. The first step to getting a performance job is to play at an audition. In some types of music, like jazz bands, bassists may be asked to read music quickly or play common songs (such as "Now's the Time") with a group of musicians. In rock or blues bands, auditioners might be asked to play well-known songs from those genres. A person trying out for a blues band might be asked to play a rhythm called a "walking bassline" in a style called Swing, a "slapping" bassline (where the strings are hit against the fingerboard in a rockabilly style), and a slow, emotional song from the 1950s. In some pop or rock groups, bassists may be asked to sing harmony parts as backup singers. In some pop and rock bands, bassists might also be asked to play other instruments, such as electric bass, keyboards, or acoustic guitar. In country music groups, being able to play electric bass is often expected, especially if the band plays classic rock or new country songs.

In classical music, bassists try out for jobs in orchestras or to join university or Conservatory programs. During a classical bass audition, the performer usually plays a part from a J.S. Bach piece for solo cello or a section from a bass concerto. They also play challenging parts from orchestral music. Common pieces requested at auditions include parts from Beethoven's Symphonies Nos. 5, 7, and 9; Strauss's Ein Heldenleben and Don Juan; Mozart's Symphonies Nos. 35, 39, and 40; Brahms's Symphonies Nos. 1 and 2; Stravinsky's Pulcinella; Shostakovich's Symphony No. 5; Ginastera's Variaciones Concertante; Tchaikovsky's Symphony No. 4; Mahler's Symphony No. 2; J.S. Bach's Suite No. 2 in B; Berlioz's Symphonie Fantastique; Mendelssohn's Symphony No. 4; and bass parts from Verdi's opera Otello, Mahler's Symphony No. 1, Britten's The Young Person's Guide to the Orchestra, and Prokofiev's Lieutenant Kije Suite.