A djembe or jembe (pronounced JEM-bay) is a drum with a skin top and ropes, made from a carved wooden body. It belongs to the Sabar family and comes from Senegal, where it is widely used in West Africa. The Bambara people of Mali say the name "djembe" comes from the phrase "Anke djé, anke bé," which means "everyone gather together in peace." In the Bambara language, "djé" means "gather" and "bé" means "peace."

The djembe has a wooden body and a drumhead made from untreated animal skin, often from goats. Without the rings, the drum is 30–38 cm (12–15 in) wide and 58–63 cm (23–25 in) tall. Most djembes are about 13 to 14 inches wide. Their weight ranges from 5 kg to 13 kg (11–29 lbs), depending on their size and the type of wood used. A medium-sized djembe made from traditional wood weighs about 9 kg (20 lbs).

The djembe can make many different sounds, making it a very flexible instrument. It is loud enough to be heard clearly even when played alone in a large group of percussion instruments. The Malinké people say a skilled drummer can "make the djembe talk," meaning the player can express emotions through the drum. The Malinké never used the djembe to send signals.

Traditionally, the djembe is played only by men, along with the dunun drums that often accompany it. Other percussion instruments, like the shekere (a gourd covered with a net of beads), karignan (a bell), and kese kese (a basket rattle), are usually played by women. Today, it is still rare to see women playing the djembe or dunun in West Africa. African women often express surprise when they see a woman playing these drums.

Origin

Most people agree that the djembe drum comes from the Mandinka people, specifically the Numu caste, who were blacksmiths. The drum spread widely across West Africa, possibly because Numu people moved during the first millennium CE. Even though the djembe is linked to the Numu, anyone can learn to play it. This is different from other instruments, like the balafon, kora, and ngoni, which are only played by members of the griot caste. (The djembe is not a griot instrument.) The word "djembefola" means "someone who plays the djembe," and it does not mean a person has special skill levels.

Traditionally, the djembe was found in areas of the Mali Empire, which began in 1230 CE and covered parts of modern-day Guinea, Mali, Burkina Faso, Ivory Coast, Gambia, and Senegal. However, because there are few written records in West Africa, it is unclear if the djembe existed before or after the Mali Empire. It is likely that the djembe has a history of at least several hundred years, and possibly more than a thousand years.

The djembe’s shape, which looks like a goblet, suggests it might have been made from a mortar. Mortars are commonly used in West Africa for preparing food.

Recent history

Before the 1950s and the independence of West African countries, most native Africans rarely traveled outside their own ethnic groups. Because of this, the djembe drum was only known in the region where it originally came from.

The djembe first became known outside West Africa because of Fodéba Keïta. In 1952, he started a dance group called Les Ballets Africains. This group performed in Europe and was named Guinea’s first national dance group by Guinea’s first president, Sékou Touré, after Guinea gained independence in 1958. Two more national dance groups were later created: Ballet d'Armee in 1961 and Ballet Djoliba in 1964.

Touré’s leadership made Guinea less connected to Western countries. He used Guinea’s culture and music to promote the country, following the example of countries in the Eastern Bloc. Touré and Fodéba Keïta, who became close friends, believed the dance groups could help blend traditions from different ethnic groups in Guinea. These groups combined dances and rhythms from many different spiritual backgrounds, which matched Touré’s goal of reducing the influence of traditional rituals.

Touré supported the dance groups strongly. He even built a special space in his palace for Ballet Djoliba to practice and perform. He also paid for the groups to tour worldwide until his death in 1984. These tours helped Western audiences learn about the djembe. Other countries, like Ivory Coast, Mali, and Senegal, also created national dance groups in the 1960s, each with its own goals.

In the United States, Ladji Camara, who was part of Ballets Africains in the 1950s, began teaching the djembe in the 1960s and continued until the 1990s. He performed with Babatunde Olatunji in the 1970s, which helped more people in the U.S. learn about the drum.

After Touré died in 1984, funding for the dance groups stopped. Many djembefolas (people who play the djembe) left Guinea and taught and performed in Western countries. These included Mamady Keïta (Belgium, U.S.), Famoudou Konaté (Germany), and Epizo Bangoura (France, U.S., Australia). Others, like M'bemba Bangoura and Abdoulaye Diakité, also moved to Western countries and became teachers and performers.

A 1991 movie called Djembefola, made by Laurent Chevallier, showed Mamady Keïta returning to his birthplace after 26 years. The film won awards at international film festivals and helped many people learn about the djembe. A follow-up movie, Mögöbalu, released in 1998, showed four famous drummers performing together on stage.

The 2007 movie The Visitor, which was nominated for an Oscar, helped the djembe become more popular with people around the world. Western artists like Paul Simon and Cirque du Soleil also used the djembe in their performances, increasing awareness of the instrument.

There are more recordings of the djembe than any other African drum. Starting in the late 1980s, many recordings focused on the djembe, and this trend continues today. These recordings are mostly made for Western audiences, and few are produced in Africa.

Early learning materials for the djembe included a 1993 VHS tape by Babatunde Olatunji and books by Serge Blanc, Famoudou Konaté, and Mamady Keïta. In 1998, Mamady Keïta released a three-volume VHS set, and in 2000, Epizo Bangoura released a VHS tape. Since then, many more books, CDs, and videos have been created for people who want to learn the djembe.

In the 1980s, some Guinean djembefolas began offering study trips to Guinea, allowing students to experience Guinean culture. By 2014, there were many such trips available each year. This created new opportunities for djembefolas in Guinea to earn income. Younger players now try to meet the needs of tourists, which has changed some aspects of the traditional djembe culture.

Most djembes from Mali, Guinea, Burkina Faso, and Senegal are still made by hand using traditional wood and tools. In the 1990s, djembes began being made in other countries, such as Ghana, Nigeria, and Indonesia. These were often made with modern tools and less suitable wood. Some Western companies also make djembe-like drums with materials like fiberglass and synthetic skins.

Over time, more women have been allowed to play the djembe and dunun drums. In 1998, Mamoudou Conde, who led several Guinean dance groups, started including women in performances. Despite some resistance from male performers, he added two female djembefolas to a 2000 U.S. tour. Based on positive reactions, he later formed an all-female group called Amazones: The Women Master Drummers of Guinea (later renamed Nimbaya!). The group has continued touring internationally.

Notable female djembefolas include Salimata Diabaté from Burkina Faso, Monette Marino-Keita from San Diego, Anne-Yolaine Diarra from France, and Melissa Hie from Burkina Faso.

Sound and beating technique

The djembe is a drum that produces unusually loud sounds for its size. The louder the drum sounds, the tighter the drum skin is stretched. When a djembe is tuned to a solo pitch, skilled players can create sound levels over 105 decibels, which is as loud as a jackhammer.

Djembe players use three main sounds: bass, tone, and slap. These sounds have low, medium, and high pitches, respectively. Players change the way they strike the drum and where they strike it to make these sounds. Other sounds can be made, but they are used less often, mainly for special effects during performances. Skilled players can use these sounds to create complex rhythms. The mix of rhythm and different pitches often makes it seem like more than one drum is being played.

The bass sound is made by hitting the center of the drum with the palm and flat fingers. Tone and slap are made by hitting closer to the edge of the drum. The area of the fingers that touches the drum determines whether the sound is a tone or a slap. For a tone, most of the fingers and the edge of the palm touch the drum. For a slap, only the edge of the palm and fingertips touch the drum. All basic sounds are played "open," meaning the hands bounce off the drum quickly to keep contact time as short as possible.

Acoustically, a djembe is a Helmholtz resonator. The pitch of the bass sound depends on the size and shape of the drum shell, not the tightness of the skin. In contrast, the pitch of tones and slaps increases as the skin becomes tighter. The bass has a frequency of 65–80 Hz. Depending on the drum's size and skin tightness, the tone frequency ranges from 300 Hz to 420 Hz, and the slap frequency ranges from 700 Hz to 1000 Hz. Overtones can be heard above 4 kHz.

• Different vibrational modes of a djembe skin
• (0,1) vibrational mode created by a bass or tone
• (1,1) vibrational mode created by a tonpalo
• (2,1) vibrational mode created by a slap
• (0,2) vibrational mode created by a slap
• (1,2) vibrational mode created by a slap
• (0,3) vibrational mode created by a slap

The difference in pitch of the sounds happens because the way players strike the drum highlights certain vibrational modes. A tone focuses on the (0,1) mode while reducing the bass (Helmholtz resonance) and other modes. A slap focuses on the (2,1), (0,2), (3,1), (1,2), and (0,3) modes while reducing the Helmholtz resonance and the (0,1) and (1,1) modes. Skilled players can also create a medium-pitched sound (between a tone and slap), called third slap, tonpalo, or lé. This sound highlights the (1,1) mode while reducing all other modes.

• Spectrum analysis for bass, tonpalo, tone, and slap
• Spectrum analysis of a bass. The large bump shows the Helmholtz resonance.
• Spectrum analysis of a tone. The pair of spikes at 343 Hz and 401 Hz are the (0,1) mode.
• Spectrum analysis of a tonpalo (third slap). The tallest spike is the (1,1) mode.
• Spectrum analysis of a slap. The spike at 812 Hz is the (2,1) mode, followed by higher-order modes.

By slightly changing how they strike the drum and the position of their fingers, skilled players can focus on different slap harmonics and create melodies with slaps of different pitches.

Role in the traditional ensemble

The djembe is often played in a group with other djembes and one or more dunun. Except for the lead (or solo) djembe, all instruments play a repeating rhythm called an accompaniment pattern. This rhythm repeats after a certain number of beats, known as a cycle. The most common cycle length is four beats, but other lengths, such as two, three, six, eight, or more beats, are also used. Some rhythms from the dundunba family in the Hamana region of Guinea have cycle lengths of 16, 24, 28, or 32 beats. Cycles longer than eight beats are rare for djembe accompaniments—these longer cycles are usually played only by the dununba or sangban.

Each instrument plays a different rhythm, and the cycle lengths of the instruments do not need to be the same. This creates complex rhythmic patterns called polyrhythms. The different accompaniment parts are played on djembes tuned to different pitches, which highlights the polyrhythm and forms a combined melody.

The number of instruments in the group varies depending on the region and the event. In Mali, a traditional group often includes one dunun (called konkoni) and one djembe. The konkoni and djembe play in a rhythmic conversation, with each drum taking turns playing accompaniment while the other plays improvised solos. If a second dunun player is available, he adds a khassonka dunun, a larger drum similar to the konkoni.

In Guinea, a typical group uses three djembes and three dunun: sangban (medium pitch), dundunba (bass pitch), and kenkeni (high pitch, also called kensedeni). If there is more than one djembe, the highest-pitched (and loudest) djembe plays solo phrases, while the other djembes and dunun play accompaniment.

The number of dunun in a group may vary depending on the availability of players and the resources of the village. Some groups may have only two dunun.

A djembe and dunun group traditionally does not play music for people to sit and listen. Instead, the group creates rhythms for people to dance, sing, clap, or work to. In traditional settings, the Western idea of separating musicians from the audience does not apply. Rhythms are usually not performed as shows but are participatory: musicians, dancers, singers, and onlookers are all part of the group and often switch roles during the music.

Musicians and participants often form a circle, with the center reserved for dancers. Depending on the rhythm, dances may involve groups of men and/or women with choreographed steps, or individual dancers may perform short solos. The lead djembe plays solo phrases that match the movements of the dancers. The goal is often to "mark the dancers' feet," meaning the rhythm is synchronized with the dancers' steps. Individual solos are not choreographed, and dancers move freely as they feel appropriate. Matching a solo dancer's steps requires the lead djembefola (player) to have strong communication with the dancer, which takes many years of experience to develop.

The lead djembefola also improvises when no one is dancing. While there is freedom in this improvisation, the solo phrases are not random. Instead, they follow specific key patterns (signature phrases) that the soloist is expected to know and use. A skilled soloist also plays phrases that work well with the background rhythm (groove) created by the other instruments.

Construction

Traditionally made djembes are carved from a single piece of hardwood. Many types of wood are used, all of which are very hard and dense. The hardness and density of the wood affect how the djembe sounds and how far the sound travels. The most valued wood is lenke (Afzelia africana), not because it sounds better than other woods, but because the Malinké people believe it has stronger spiritual qualities. (The Malinké believe that all living and non-living things have a spiritual energy called nyama.) Other traditional woods include djalla (Khaya senegalensis), dugura (Cordyla africana), gueni (Pterocarpus erinaceus), gele (Prosopis africana), and iroko (Milicia excelsa).

Shells are carved shortly after the tree is cut down, while the wood still has some moisture and is softer. This makes the wood easier to shape and prevents cracks from forming as the wood dries. Carvers use simple tools like axes, adzes, spoke shaves, and rasps to shape the shell. A well-carved djembe has a textured interior with scallops or shallow grooves that affect the sound. (Djembes with smooth interiors produce tones and slaps that last too long.) Interior grooves often form a spiral pattern, showing the carver’s skill.

The djembe is covered with a rawhide skin, most often goatskin. Other animal skins, such as antelope, cow, kangaroo, or horse, can also be used. Thicker skins, like cowhide, produce warmer sounds with more overtones in slaps, while thinner skins create sharper, louder slaps with fewer overtones. Thicker skins are easier to use for full tones but harder for sharp slaps; thinner skins are the opposite. Thin skins are louder than thick ones. Thicker skins, like cowhide, can cause more calluses on the player’s hands than goatskin.

Skins from goats in dry, hot climates or from poorly fed goats are preferred because they have less fat. Skins from cold-climate goats with high nutrition have more than double the fat content and tend to sound dull. Even though male goats have less fat than females, many players prefer female skins because they smell less and are said to be softer.

The skin is attached with the spine running through the center of the drum head, pointing toward the player. This ensures the left and right hands strike equal areas of the skin. Animal skins are thicker along the spine than on the sides; centering the spine helps keep the left and right hands playing symmetric areas. The head of the spine usually points at the player, so the hands strike the area that used to be the goat’s shoulders. With thicker skins, like cow or horse hide, the skin is often taken from the side of the hide to avoid the thick spine.

Skins may be shaved before or after attaching them, or they may be de-haired by soaking in lime. Soaking weakens the skin; some drum makers say it can hurt the hands and make the drum sound worse.

Factory-made djembes often use synthetic materials, like FiberSkyn, for the skin.

Modern djembes use synthetic rope, most commonly of kernmantle construction, with a diameter of 4–5 mm. Low-stretch rope is preferred. Most djembe ropes have a polyester core and a 16- or 32-plait outer layer, with about 5% stretch. Very low-stretch rope, like Vectran or Spectra, is rarely used because it is more expensive.

The way the skin is attached has changed over time.

Originally, the skin was fastened with wooden pegs driven through holes in the skin and the shell near the playing edge. Four to five people would stretch the wet skin over the drum to apply tension while the pegs were driven into the shell. As the skin dried, it shrank, adding more tension. A similar method is still used by the Landouma people for a drum called a gumbe. This method is likely hundreds of years old, though the exact time is unknown.

Until the 1980s, the most common way to attach the skin used twisted strips of cowhide as rope. The skin was attached with rings made of cowhide: one ring was sewn into the edge of the skin, and a second ring was placed below it. A long strip of cowhide was used to tie the drum, creating tension between the top ring and a third ring around the stem. To increase tension further, the rope was woven into a diamond pattern. Wooden pegs could be inserted between the shell and the rope to add more tension.

Traditional djembes had lower pitches than modern ones because natural materials limited how tight the skin could be stretched. Before playing, drum makers would heat the skin near a fire to remove moisture, causing it to shrink and raise the pitch. This process had to be repeated every 15–30 minutes.

The modern mounting system began in the 1970s when touring ballets used synthetic rope from the military. At first, the synthetic rope replaced the twisted cowhide strips. However, the rope could now be tightened so much that it tore through the skin. To fix this, drum makers started using steel rings instead of cowhide rings. Despite some drum makers’ objections, the modern system gradually replaced the traditional one and became the only method by 1991.

The skin is held in place between the top ring (called the crown ring) and the ring below it (called the flesh ring). A third ring (the bottom ring) is placed around the stem. The rings are often made from 6–8 mm (0.2–0.3 in) rebar. Loops are tied around the crown ring and bottom ring, and a rope connects them. Tightening the rope applies tension. As the rope tightens, the loops on the crown ring press the skin against the flesh ring, securing it and stretching the skin over the drum’s edge.

A variation of this method, introduced in the early 2000s, uses three rings instead of two. This adds more friction points to hold the skin in place and reduce slipping. However, some drum makers debate whether the benefits of this method are worth the extra weight and complexity.

To protect the rope from rust and for decoration, the rings are often wrapped with colored cloth strips.

Factory-made djembes (often made from synthetic materials like fiberglass) use a similar system. Instead of vertical ropes, the top ring is pulled against the flesh ring using mechanical lugs tightened with a wrench.

Tuning

After the vertical ropes are first tightened, a djembe drum is tuned by twisting the vertical ropes to make them shorter, a method called the Mali weave. When multiple rows of twists are added, the vertical rope forms diamond patterns that are visually appealing. Proper use of the Mali weave keeps the horizontal rope straight, preventing it from slowly moving upward in a spiral shape.

The amount of tension that can be applied using this method is very high. A djembe tuned to a solo pitch produces a sound frequency of about 400 Hz. For a drum with a 31 cm (12.2 in) playing surface, this creates a total pulling force of approximately 455 kg (1,000 lb), or 15,000 newtons per meter (N/m) of tension. Modern djembes often include tuning lugs, similar to those on snare drums, which allow the drum to be adjusted using a drum key. Additionally, the drum heads on modern djembes can be made from various materials, including man-made options or natural materials such as goatskin.

Decoration

Instead of cutting the skin above the crown ring, the drum maker can fold the skin over so it covers the crown ring. This method is used for appearance reasons; the fold does not help keep the skin in place.

Djembefolas often attach one to four metal rattles to their drum. These rattles are called sege sege (Malinké) or sesse (Susu), also known as ksink ksink. The rattles add decoration and help create a fuller sound. Sege sege are not a sign of status or skill. Anyone can attach them to their djembe, no matter their ability or who they are playing with, without causing offense or breaking rules.

Ropes of different colors can be wrapped around the drum's bowl for decoration. (To tune the drum, the rope wrap must be removed.) Djembes may also be decorated with cowrie shells, colored paint, decorative tacks, or other metal items.

Traditionally, carvings on djembes (if present) are limited to the foot. Different countries use different patterns, and traditional styles are usually simple and modest. In the 2000s, increased demand from Western buyers and competition among carvers led to more detailed carvings. These carvings now often cover the entire foot and, in some cases, extend to the drum's bowl.

In Guinea, drum makers often attach motorcycle tires to the foot of a djembe. This is done for decoration and to prevent the drum from slipping when played while sitting on a slippery floor. This practice began in the late 1990s and developed from earlier traditions of attaching timing belts to the drum's foot as decoration.

Study

In Africa, as it is today, a person must spend many years helping their master during ceremonies and other celebrations before becoming a djembefola, or djembe player. In communities of Western culture, learning to play the djembe usually involves finding a skilled drummer and taking private lessons or small group classes. To follow lessons, students typically need to learn basic sounds and traditional rhythms (4/4 and 12/8). Many years of practice are required to create a sound as high quality as that of a master drummer.

Written notes of rhythms are not always exact. Usually, only the main idea of the rhythm is recorded, but the unique feeling it carries is hard to write down. This is because West African music has different types of swing (at least four) that are difficult to show using Western music notation. Because of this, written materials for advanced players are rare or not available, while general information about the djembe is easier to find.

With the help of music software like Percussion Studio, writing down and playing back rhythms is now easier. Music software can help people who do not have a group to practice with, as individual tracks can be separated or adjusted in speed to help with learning. A skilled user can record material learned in a workshop for later use. However, Percussion Studio cannot copy the exact pitch and timing of a skilled player, so it is not very helpful for recording solo performances. The drum machine software Hydrogen includes Djembe, dunun, and bell sound files that can be used for study, as described above.

Notable djembefolas

• Abdoulaye Diakité (Senegal)
• Hani Naser (Jordanian-American)
• Latyr Sy (Senegal)
• Mamady Keïta (Guinea)
• Famoudou Konaté (Guinea)
• Bolokada Conde (Guinea)
• Yamadu Bani Dunbia (Mali)
• Soungalo Coulibaly (Mali)
• Drissa Kone (Mali)

Selected recordings

• Famoudou Konaté (1991). Rhythmen Der Malinke. Museum Collection Berlin: CD 18. Recordings made in Guinea, with detailed notes by Johannes Beer in German and French. This recording is one of the first to focus on the djembe drum. It is often seen as one of the best examples of traditional Guinean music.
• Les Ballets Africains (1990). Les Ballets Africains: Guinea. Musique du Monde, Buda Records. A recording of Guinea’s first national ballet, showing how traditional music was changed and used for performances on stage.
• Jaraba Jakite, Yamadu Bani Dunbia, Jeli Madi Kuyate (2007). The Art of Jenbe Drumming (Mali Tradition Vol. 1). bibiafrica. A companion CD to The Jenbe Realbook. Recordings of traditional village drumming styles, using only one djembe and one konkoni, performed by well-known experts.