Indian classical music is the traditional music of the Indian subcontinent. It is often called Shastriya Sangeet or Marg Sangeet. There are two main traditions: North Indian classical music, known as Hindustani, and South Indian classical music, known as Carnatic. Hindustani music focuses on creating music freely and exploring all parts of a raga, while Carnatic music usually follows short, structured compositions. Despite these differences, both traditions share many similarities. Another classical music style from eastern India is Odissi music, which has developed over the past two thousand years.
The origins of Indian classical music can be found in the ancient religious writings of Hinduism, called the Vedas, and in the Natyashastra, a famous Sanskrit text about performing arts written by Bharata Muni. A 13th-century Sanskrit text called Sangeeta-Ratnakara, written by Sarangadeva, is considered an important guide for both Hindustani and Carnatic music traditions.
Indian classical music is built on two key elements: raga and tala. A raga is a complex system of notes, including very small musical intervals, that forms the basis of a melody. A tala is a rhythmic pattern that structures the timing of the music. The raga gives musicians a way to create melodies, while the tala helps them organize rhythms. In Indian classical music, the spaces between notes are often more important than the notes themselves. Unlike Western classical music, it does not use concepts like harmony, counterpoint, chords, or modulation.
History
The roots of music in ancient India are found in the Vedic literature of Hinduism. The earliest Indian thought combined three forms of art: syllabic recital (vadya), melos (gita), and dance (nrtta). As these fields developed, sangeeta became a distinct genre of art, similar to modern music. This likely happened before the time of Yāska (around 500 BCE), since he included these terms in his nirukta studies, one of the six Vedanga of ancient Indian tradition. Some ancient Hindu texts, such as the Samaveda (around 1000 BCE), are structured entirely around melodic themes. These include sections of the Rigveda that are set to music.
The Samaveda is organized into two formats. One part is based on musical meter, and the other on the purpose of rituals. The text includes embedded coding, where swaras (octave notes) are shown above or within the text, or the verse is written into parvans (knots or parts). This coding acts like the skeleton of a song. Swaras have about 12 different forms, and combinations of these swaras are grouped under names of different ragas. The specific code of a song clearly shows which swaras are used. The lyrical part of a song is called "sahityam," which is like singing the swaras together but using the song's lyrics. The swara code also includes notation for which notes should be sung high or low. The hymns of the Samaveda contain melodic content, rhythm, and metric organization. This structure is not unique to the Samaveda; the Rigveda also includes musical meter, though with less detail. For example, the Gayatri mantra has three lines of exactly eight syllables, with an embedded three-part rhythm.
In ancient Hindu traditions, two musical genres emerged: Gandharva (formal, composed, ceremonial music) and Gana (informal, improvised, entertainment music). Gandharva music was associated with celestial or divine themes, while Gana referred to singing. The Vedic Sanskrit musical tradition spread widely across the Indian subcontinent. According to Rowell, ancient Tamil texts show that a cultivated musical tradition existed in South India as early as the last few centuries before the Christian era.
The classic Sanskrit text Natya Shastra is the foundation of many classical music and dance traditions in India. Before the Natya Shastra was finalized, ancient Indian traditions classified musical instruments into four groups based on their acoustic principles (how they produce sound, not the materials they are made from). For example, flutes work by allowing air to flow in and out. These four categories are described in four separate chapters of the Natya Shastra: stringed instruments (chordophones), hollow instruments (aerophones), solid instruments (idiophones), and covered instruments (membranophones).
According to Levis Rowell, idiophones in the form of "small bronze cymbals" were used for tala (rhythmic patterns). Much of the chapter on idiophones in the Natya Shastra, written by Bharata, is a theoretical discussion of the tala system. Timekeeping with idiophones was considered a separate function from percussion (membranophones) in early Indian music theory.
The 13th-century Sanskrit text Sangitaratnakara ("Ocean of Music and Dance"), written by Sarngadeva and supported by King Sighana of the Yadava dynasty in Maharashtra, discusses ragas and talas. He identified seven tala families, then divided them into rhythmic ratios, presenting a method for improvisation and composition that continues to influence modern Indian musicians. Sangitaratnakara is one of the most complete medieval Hindu texts on music theory, covering the structure, techniques, and reasoning behind ragas and talas.
The importance of music in ancient and early medieval India is also shown in temple and shrine carvings from Buddhism, Hinduism, and Jainism. For example, musicians with cymbals are carved in the fifth-century Pavaya temple near Gwalior and the Ellora Caves.
Post-Vedic historical texts about Indian classical music are extensive. Most ancient and medieval texts are in Sanskrit (Hinduism), but major works on music theory, instruments, and practice were also written in regional languages such as Kannada, Odia, Pali (Buddhism), Prakrit (Jainism), Tamil, and Telugu. While many manuscripts have survived, many original works on Indian music are believed to be lost, known only through references in other texts. Many Puranas, which are encyclopedic texts, include large sections on music theory and instruments, such as the Bhagavata Purana, Markandeya Purana, Vayu Purana, Linga Purana, and Visnudharmottara Purana.
The most cited and influential texts include the Sama Veda, Natya Shastra (a classic treatise on music theory and Gandharva), Dattilam, Brihaddesi (a treatise on regional classical music forms), and Sangita Ratnakara (a key text for Carnatic and Hindustani traditions). Most historical music theory texts were written by Hindu scholars. Some classical music texts were also composed by Buddhist and Jain scholars, and in the 16th century by Muslim scholars. These are listed in the attached table.
Major traditions
The classical music of ancient and medieval India, which includes modern Bangladesh, India, and Pakistan, was a unified system until the 14th century. After this time, the social and political changes caused by the Delhi Sultanate era separated northern and southern music traditions. These traditions were not seen as different until around the 16th century, when they developed into distinct styles. North Indian classical music is called Hindustani, while South Indian classical music is called Carnatic (sometimes spelled Karnatic). According to Nazir Ali Jairazbhoy, the modern form of Hindustani music likely developed after the 14th or 15th century.
Indian classical music has always absorbed and adapted regional styles, such as the Bengali tradition. This openness allowed the inclusion of local folk music and influences from outside the subcontinent. For example, Hindustani music incorporated ideas from Arabian and Persian cultures. These influences were added to the ancient foundations of Indian music, such as raga, tala, matras, and musical instruments. For instance, the Persian word "Rāk" may be a pronunciation of "raga." According to Hormoz Farhat, "Rāk" has no meaning in modern Persian, and the concept of raga is not known in Persia.
If Hindustani music is viewed as a new style created by blending Indian classical music with Persian traditions, then Carnatic music developed independently in southern India after this separation. Carnatic music is considered the ancient Indian classical tradition that became distinct after Hindustani music formed. It has roots in ancient times but became clearly different after the 16th century. Purandara Dasa (1484–1564), a Hindu composer and teacher from the Vijayanagara Empire, is known as the "great father" of Carnatic music. He organized Indian music theory, created exercises for musicians, and taught widely. His methods, including the system called Suladi Sapta Tala, are still used today. His work in the 16th century helped shape the Carnatic style of music.
Carnatic music from South India is more focused on rhythm and structure compared to Hindustani music. For example, ragas are classified into groups called melakartas, and fixed compositions are used, similar to Western classical music. Carnatic raga performances are usually faster and shorter than Hindustani ones. Also, accompanists play a larger role in Carnatic concerts than in Hindustani ones. Today’s typical Carnatic concert format was established by the singer Ariyakudi Ramanuja Iyengar. The concert begins with a piece called a varnam, which helps musicians warm up. This is followed by a prayer, then a series of exchanges between ragams (unmetered melodies) and tanam (ornamented sections). Hymns called krithis are also included. The main theme of the raga, called the pallavi, follows. Carnatic music also includes written poems that are performed with variations, a practice called Manodharmam.
Common themes in Carnatic music include worship, temple descriptions, philosophy, and stories about heroes and heroines. Important historical figures in Carnatic music include Tyagaraja (1759–1847), Muthuswami Dikshitar (1776–1827), and Syama Sastri (1762–1827). According to Eleanor Zelliot, Tyagaraja is considered one of the greatest composers in the Carnatic tradition and respected the influence of Purandara Dasa.
It is unclear when Hindustani music began to develop differently from Carnatic music. Some believe this started in the 14th century courts of the Delhi Sultans. According to Jairazbhoy, the modern form of Hindustani music likely formed after the 14th or 15th century. Hindustani music reached its peak during the reign of Akbar in the 16th century. Tansen, a famous musician, studied music under the Hindu king Ram Chand of Gwalior and later performed for Akbar. Many musicians consider Tansen the founder of Hindustani music.
Tansen’s style and innovations inspired many, and modern schools of Hindustani music, called gharanas, trace their lineage to him. Muslim courts discouraged the use of Sanskrit and focused on technical music, leading Hindustani music to develop differently from Carnatic music.
Hindustani music is mainly found in North India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh. Before the Taliban banned music, it was also popular in Afghanistan. It has four major forms: Dhrupad, Khyal (or Khayal), Tarana, and the semi-classical Thumri. Dhrupad is the oldest, Khyal evolved from it, and Thumri developed from Khyal. Thumri has three major schools: Lucknow, Banaras, and Punjabi. These styles blend folk music. Tappa, the most folk-like form, likely originated in Rajasthan and Punjab before being integrated into classical music. Bengali musicians later developed their own version of Tappa.
Khyal is the modern form of Hindustani music, and the word means "imagination." It was important for Sufi musicians in India, who sang folk songs in the Khyal style.
Dhrupad, an ancient form described in the Hindu text Natyashastra, is a core style of classical music across the Indian subcontinent. The word comes from "Dhruva," meaning "immovable" or "permanent." A Dhrupad song has at least four parts: Sthayi (or Asthayi), Antara, Sanchari, and Abhoga. The Sthayi uses notes from the middle and lower octaves, while the Antara uses notes from the middle and higher octaves. The Sanchari develops the melody by combining parts of Sthayi and Antara, using notes from all three octaves. The Abhoga concludes the piece, returning to the familiar Sthayi melody with rhythmic changes and notes like half, third, or fourth intervals. Sometimes a fifth section, called Bhoga, is added. Dhrupad songs often focus on philosophical or devotional themes, though some were written to praise kings.
Improvisation is central to Hindustani music, and each school (gharana) has its own techniques. A performance usually starts with a standard composition (bandish) and expands it through a process called vistar. Improvisation has ancient roots, and one common technique is Alap, followed by Jor and Jhala. Alap explores tonal possibilities, Jor increases the speed, and Jhala focuses on rhythmic patterns.
Features
Classical Indian music is one type of South Asian music. Other types include film music, pop music, folk music from different regions, and religious or devotional music.
In Indian classical music, raga and tala are two important parts. Raga creates the melody. Tala keeps the rhythm. Both raga and tala are flexible frameworks that allow many creative possibilities. However, the tradition includes a few hundred basic ragas and talas. Raga is connected to tala, which is about dividing time into units called matra (beats and the time between beats).
A raga is a central idea in Indian music. It is not easy to define in a few sentences. A raga includes how notes are played, how long they last, and the order in which they are used. This is similar to how words form phrases to create feelings. Some rules are required, while others are optional. A raga allows freedom for the musician to express music simply or add decorations while still sharing the same basic message.
A raga has a set of notes on a scale, arranged in melodies with musical patterns. A musician may use only these notes but can choose to emphasize or improvise certain notes. The Indian tradition suggests a specific order for moving between notes to create a rasa (a mood or feeling) unique to each raga. A raga can be written on a scale. Theoretically, thousands of ragas are possible with five or more notes, but in practice, the tradition uses several hundred. Most artists know about forty to fifty ragas. Raga is connected to tala, which divides time into units called matra (beats and time between beats).
A raga is not a single tune because the same raga can produce many different tunes. A raga is not a scale because many ragas can use the same scale. Scholars describe a raga as a concept similar to a mode, something between a tune and a scale. It is best thought of as a collection of melodic features that create a unique feeling in the listener. The goal of a raga and its performer is to create rasa (a feeling or atmosphere) with music, similar to how classical Indian dance uses performance to create emotion. In the Indian tradition, classical dances are performed with music set to various ragas.
According to David Nelson, an expert in Carnatic music, a tala in Indian music covers "the whole subject of musical meter." Indian music is composed and performed within a structured beat system called a tala. A tala measures time in Indian music but does not always follow a regular pattern of strong and weak beats. Instead, the arrangement depends on how the music is performed.
A tala creates a repeating rhythm structure from the start to the end of a song or dance. This is similar to meters in Western music but has unique features. Some talas are much longer than Western meters, such as a tala based on 29 beats that takes about 45 seconds to complete. Unlike Western meters, talas do not rely on a strict pattern of strong and weak beats. Instead, the emphasis on a beat depends on the shape of the musical phrase.
The most common tala in South Indian music is adi tala. In North Indian music, the most common tala is teental. In both major systems of Indian classical music, the first beat of a tala is called sam.
Instruments used in Hindustani music include the sitar, sarod, surbahar, esraj, veena, tanpura, bansuri, shehnai, sarangi, violin, santoor, pakhavaj, and tabla. Instruments used in Carnatic music include veena, venu, gottuvadyam, harmonium, mridangam, kanjira, ghatam, nadaswaram, and violin.
The tabla, a type of drum, is used to keep rhythm in Hindustani music. The tanpura, a stringed instrument, is played at a steady tone throughout a performance. It helps the musician by providing a reference and background for the music. The tanpura’s tuning depends on the raga being performed. Traditionally, a student of the soloist plays the tanpura. Other instruments used for accompaniment include the sarangi and the harmonium.
Indian classical music is detailed and expressive. Like Western classical music, it divides the octave into 12 semitones, with seven basic notes. In Hindustani music, the notes are Sa, Re, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni. In Carnatic music, the notes are Sa, Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni. These are similar to Western music’s Do, Re, Mi, Fa, So, La, Ti. However, Indian music uses just-intonation tuning, while some modern Western classical music uses equal-temperament tuning. Indian classical music also focuses heavily on improvisation.
The scale in Indian music may have four, five, six, or seven tones called swaras. The concept of swara is found in the ancient Natya Shastra, which describes the musical scale in Chapter 28. The seven basic notes are shared by both Hindustani and Carnatic music systems. The solfege (sargam) is learned in a shortened form: sa, ri (Carnatic) or re (Hindustani), ga, ma, pa, dha, ni, sa. The first note, sa, and the fifth note, pa, are fixed and unchangeable, while the others vary between the two systems.
Modern Indian music schools use systems like melakarta and thaat to classify ragas. Thaat, used in Hindustani music, is based on a system created by Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande, which is not perfect but still helpful.
Reception outside India
According to Yukteshwar Kumar, parts of Indian music reached China in the 3rd century, as seen in the songs of Chinese lyricist Li Yannian. In 1958, Ravi Shankar traveled to the United States and began recording albums. These recordings helped increase interest in Indian classical music in the United States during the 1960s. By 1967, Shankar and other artists were performing at rock music festivals with Western rock, blues, and soul musicians. This continued until the mid-1970s. In 1969, Ravi Shankar performed at Woodstock, where more than 500,000 people watched him play. In the 1980s, 1990s, and especially after the 2000s, Indian classical music grew in popularity and spread worldwide, especially in North America. There, immigrant communities kept the music traditions alive and taught them to future generations through local festivals and music schools. Many American musicians, including Ramakrishnan Murthy, Sandeep Narayan, Pandit Vikash Maharaj, Abby V, and Mahesh Kale, have become successful in Indian classical music. In a 2020 video, Canadian singer Abby V performed 73 different Indian classical ragas live, and the video became widely shared online. This helped show how Indian classical music is gaining more attention globally. Since 2023, the UK-based arts organization KalaSudha has held the Kala Festival, a traveling celebration of Indian classical music in major British cities, featuring top Hindustani and Carnatic musicians.
Organizations
Sangeet Natak Akademi is a national academy in India that supports performance arts. It gives out the Sangeet Natak Akademi Award, which is the highest honor in India for people who work in performance arts.
SPIC MACAY was created in 1977 and has more than 500 groups in India and other countries. It organizes about 5000 events each year that focus on Indian classical music and dance. Groups like Prayag Sangeet Samiti offer certificates and classes in Indian classical music.
Akhil Bharatiya Gandharva Mahavidyalaya Mandal (अखिल भारतीय गान्धर्व महाविद्यालय मंडल) is an organization that works to promote and spread Indian classical music and dance.