Hindustani classical music, also called North Indian classical music or Shastriya Sangeet, is the traditional music of northern India. It is played on instruments such as the veena, sitar, and sarod. This music became different from Carnatic music, the classical tradition of southern India, in the 12th century. While Carnatic music uses songs written in Sanskrit, Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, and Malayalam, Hindustani music uses songs written in Sanskrit, Hindustani (Hindi-Urdu), Braj, Awadhi, Bhojpuri, Bengali, Rajasthani, Punjabi, and even Persian.

Hindustani classical music is taught in schools called gharana. It is an important part of North Indian culture and is performed throughout India and around the world. Musicians such as Ustad Bismillah Khan, Pandit Bhimsen Joshi, and Ravi Shankar have been honored with the Bharat Ratna, India's highest civilian award, for their contributions to the arts.

History

In the 12th century, Hindustani classical music became different from what later became known as Carnatic classical music. Both systems share the idea of a melodic musical mode called a raga, which is sung with a rhythmic cycle called a tala. This is melodic music, and it does not include harmony. These ideas were explained in ancient musical texts, such as the Natya Shastra by Bharata (2nd–3rd century CE) and Dattilam (probably 3rd–4th century CE).

During the medieval period, Hindustani music blended with ideas from Persian music, especially through Sufi composers like Amir Khusro. Later, in the Mughal courts, composers such as Tansen and religious groups like the Vaishnavites helped shape the music. Artists like Dalptaram, Mirabai, Brahmanand Swami, and Premanand Swami helped revive classical Hindustani music between the 16th and 18th centuries.

After the 16th century, singing styles split into different gharanas, which were supported by different royal courts. Around 1900, Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande organized the musical structures of Hindustani classical music, called ragas, into a few categories called thaats based on their notes. This system has some problems but is still useful for understanding.

Respected Hindu musicians are often called Pandit, and Muslim musicians are called Ustad. A tradition from Sufi times is that Muslim ustads may sing songs praising Hindu gods, and Hindu pandits may sing songs praising Islamic ideas.

In 1901, Vishnu Digambar Paluskar founded the Gandharva Mahavidyalaya, a school to teach Hindustani classical music formally. This was one of the first schools in India to be supported by public donations instead of royal funding. Many students from this school became respected musicians and teachers in North India. This helped musicians gain more respect and spread Hindustani music to more people.

In Hindu tradition, Ravana and Narada are skilled musicians. Saraswati, the goddess of music, is shown playing a veena. Gandharvas are spirits who are musical masters, and their music is linked to the pleasure of the soma rasa. In the Vishnudharmottara Purana, the Naga king Ashvatara asks Saraswati about the swaras, or musical notes.

The term "raga" appears in the Natya Shastra, where it means "color" or "mood." A clearer explanation of the concept is found in the Dattilam, a text written around the same time as the Natya Shastra. The Dattilam focuses on Gandharva music and describes scales (swara) using 22 micro-tonal intervals (shruti) within one octave. It also discusses note arrangements (murchhana), note sequences (tanas), and elaboration (alankara). The Dattilam divides melodic structures into 18 groups called Jati, which are similar to ragas. The names of the Jatis show their regional origins, such as Andhri and Oudichya.

Music is mentioned in many texts from the Gupta period. Kalidasa wrote about instruments like the veena, mridang, vamshi, and shankha. Music also appears in Buddhist and Jain texts from early times.

Narada's Sangita Makarandha, from about 1100 CE, is the earliest text with rules similar to those of modern Hindustani classical music. Narada named and classified the system before Persian influences changed it. Jayadeva's Gita Govinda, from the 12th century, is considered the first musical composition in the classical tradition called Ashtapadi music.

In the 13th century, Sharangadeva wrote the Sangita Ratnakara, which includes names like "Turkish Todi," showing the influence of Islamic culture. This text is the last one mentioned by both the Carnatic and Hindustani traditions and is often seen as marking the time when the two styles became different.

The arrival of Islamic rule under the Delhi Sultanate and later the Mughal Empire in northern India led to cultural exchanges. Musicians received support from the courts of these rulers, who became more interested in local music. Over time, these rulers adopted aspects of Hindu culture, leading to new musical forms like qawwali and khyal.

Amir Khusrau (1253–1325), a composer in Persian, Turkish, Arabic, and Braj Bhasha, helped organize some parts of Hindustani music and introduced ragas like Yaman Kalyan, Zeelaf, and Sarpada. He created six music genres: khyal, tarana, Naqsh, Gul, Qaul, and Qalbana. Many instruments, such as the sitar, also developed during this time.

Amir Khusrau is sometimes credited with starting the khyal form, but his compositions do not fully support this. The khyal style as it is today may have been shaped by the court musician Sadarang in the court of Muhammad Shah. This suggests that while khyal existed earlier, Sadarang may have helped develop its modern form.

Many musical forms created by early musicians blended with Hindu traditions, using the language of the people (not Sanskrit) in the works of composers like Kabir and Nanak. This is part of the Bhakti tradition, which was strongly linked to the Vaishnavite movement. Important figures in this tradition include Jayadeva (12th century), Vidyapati (around 1375 CE), Chandidas (14th–15th century), and Meerabai (1555–1603 CE).

As the Mughal Empire interacted more with Hindus, especially under Emperor Akbar, music and dance flourished. Tansen, a musician, introduced new ragas and compositions. It is said that when he sang a nighttime raga in the morning, the city grew quiet, and clouds gathered so he could light fires by singing the raga "Deepak."

At the royal court of Gwalior, Raja Mansingh Tomar (1486–1516 CE) helped shift from Sanskrit to the local language (Hindi) for classical songs. He wrote many compositions on religious and secular themes and compiled a work called the Mankutuhal, which described the major musical forms of the time. The dhrupad style, which became central to the Gwalior gharana, developed significantly in his court.

After the Mughal Empire ended, smaller kingdoms like Awadh, Patiala, and Banaras continued to support music, leading to the development of different styles known as gharanas. Many musician families received land grants, making them self-sufficient for generations (e.g., the Sham Chaurasia gharana). Meanwhile, the Bhakti and Sufi traditions continued to influence various gharanas and groups.

Until the late 19th century, Hindustani classical music was taught through the guru-shishya ("mentor-protégé") tradition. This system had many benefits but also had challenges.

Characteristics

Indian classical music uses seven main notes with five additional half-notes, creating a 12-note scale. In Western music, the 12-note scale has a fixed starting frequency, but in Indian music, the starting frequency can change, and the spacing between notes (called temperament) may also differ. A musical performance follows a specific melodic pattern called a raga. A raga is defined by its unique way of rising (ascent, or aroha) and falling (descent, or avaroha) through notes, along with two important notes called the "king" (vadi) and "queen" (samavadi), and specific musical phrases (pakad).

Ragas can come from many sources, such as religious songs, traditional folk music, or music from other cultures. For example, the raga Khamaj and its variations were developed from folk music, while ragas like Hijaz (also known as Basant Mukhari) were originally from Persian musical traditions called maqams.

Principles of Hindustani music

The Natya Shastra is a Sanskrit text that explains the theory of music and how it is used in music, physics, medicine, and magic. It describes two types of sound: āhata (audible, or heard) and anāhata (inaudible, or not heard). The inaudible sound is considered the foundation of all things in the universe.

There are three main "Saptak" scales, which are similar to the "octaves" in Western music. However, these scales include seven natural notes, called "swaras," instead of eight. These scales are named mandra (low), madhya (medium), and tāra (high). Each octave is believed to resonate with a different part of the body: the low octave with the heart, the medium octave with the throat, and the high octave with the head. Each octave contains 12 notes, including seven natural notes (S R G M P D N), four flat notes (R G D N), and one sharp note (M).

Rhythmic patterns in music are called "tala," and the melodic structures are called "ragas." Ragas can be grouped into categories called "thaats," which are like parent scales. Each thaat can include up to seven scale degrees, or swara. Hindustani musicians use a system called "Sargam" to name pitches, similar to the Western "movable do solfege":

• Sa = Do
• Re = Re
• Ga = Mi
• Ma = Fa
• Pa = So
• Dha = La
• Ni = Ti
• Sa = Do

Both systems repeat at the octave. In Sargam, the notes Re, Ga, Ma, Dha, and Ni can refer to natural, flat, or sharp versions of their scale degrees. Unlike fixed pitch systems, such as those on a xylophone, these notes are relative to a chosen tonic that changes with each performance. Small differences in pitch between the same swara are called "srutis." The three main registers in Indian classical music are mandra (low), madhya (middle), and tāra (high). Since the octave location is not fixed, some ragas may use mid-range registers, such as mandra-madhya or madhya-tāra.

A typical Hindustani raga performance has two stages:

• Alap: A free, rhythmless improvisation that introduces the raga’s characteristics. In vocal music, this is followed by a slow improvisation, or by "jod" and "jhala" in instrumental music.

• Bandish or Gat: A fixed, melodic composition performed in a specific raga with rhythmic accompaniment from instruments like the tabla or pakhavaj. Bandish can be divided into parts:
• Sthaayi: The opening phrase of a composition.
• Antara: The first main phrase, often exploring the upper octave of the raga.
• Sanchaari: The third phrase, typically found in dhrupad compositions and exploring the lower section of the raga.
• Aabhog: The final phrase, often expanding the upper octave and sometimes containing the poet’s name.

Bandish can also be categorized by tempo:
– Vilambit bandish: Slow and steady, played at largo to adagio speeds.
– Madhyalaya bandish: Medium tempo, played at andante to allegretto speeds.
– Drut bandish: Fast tempo, played at allegretto or faster speeds.

Hindustani classical music is primarily vocal-focused, as many musical forms were created for singing. Instruments are often judged based on how well they mimic the human voice.

Types of compositions

The major vocal styles in Hindustani classical music are dhrupad, khyal, and tarana. Lighter classical forms include dhamar, trivat, chaiti, kajari, tappa, tap-khyal, thumri, dadra, ghazal, and bhajan. These forms are less strict in their rules compared to classical music.

Dhrupad is an old singing style, traditionally performed by men. It uses a tambura and pakhawaj as accompaniment. Some lyrics were written in Sanskrit long ago, but many are now sung in brajbhasha, a language from medieval North and East India. The rudra veena, an ancient string instrument, is used in dhrupad instrumental music.

Dhrupad music often has religious themes and praises gods. It begins with a long, non-rhythmic section called an alap, where syllables from a mantra are recited. The alap gradually becomes more rhythmic in jod and jhala sections, followed by a part called bandish with the pakhawaj as accompaniment. The famous musician Tansen sang in the dhrupad style. A lighter version of dhrupad called dhamar is performed during the spring festival of Holi.

Dhrupad was the main style of northern Indian classical music until about 200 years ago, when it was replaced by khyal, a more flexible style. After losing royal support, dhrupad nearly disappeared in the early 20th century. However, efforts by musicians like the Dagar family helped revive it.

Notable dhrupad singers include members of the Dagar lineage, such as the senior Dagar brothers, the junior Dagar brothers, and others like Wasifuddin and Sayeeduddin Dagar. Other important singers include the Gundecha Brothers and Uday Bhawalkar, who studied with the Dagars. The Mallik family of Darbhanga tradition also includes famous singers like Ram Chatur Mallick and Prem Kumar Mallick. The Dumraon Gharana, a 500-year-old tradition from Bihar, was founded by Pt. Tilak Chand Dubey and Pt. Ghanarang Baba. This tradition was supported by the king of Dumraon. The dhrupad styles of this gharana are Gauhar, Khandar, and Nauharvani. Pt. Ramjee Mishra is a living legend of this tradition.

Some dhrupad singers from the Delhi Gharana, which was part of Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan’s court, moved to Bettiah under the patronage of the Bettiah Raj, creating the Bettiah Gharana.

Khyal is the modern form of Hindustani vocal music. The word "khyal" means "thought" or "imagination" in Hindustani and comes from Persian/Arabic. It consists of two to eight lines set to a melody. Khyal has more embellishments and ornamentations than dhrupad. Features like sargam and taan, along with incorporating dhrupad-style alap, have made khyal popular.

The content of khyal is important because it allows singers to express emotions through a specific raga. Singers improvise within the raga to convey the khyal’s meaning. The origin of khyal is debated, but it is believed to have developed from dhrupad and influenced by other traditions. Some say Amir Khusrau created it in the late 14th century. It became popular through Mughal Emperor Mohammad Shah’s court musicians, including Sadarang, Adarang, and Manrang.

Taranas are medium- to fast-paced songs that express joy and are usually performed at the end of concerts. They use rhythmic syllables from tabla, pakhawaj, or Kathak dance set to a tune. Singers improvise quickly based on these syllables. The tillana of Carnatic music is similar to tarana but is more associated with dance.

Tappa is a semi-classical vocal style known for its fast, complex rhythm. It originated from folk songs of camel riders in Punjab and was developed into a classical form by Mian Ghulam Nabi Shori, a court singer for the Nawab of Awadh. "Nidhubabur Tappa," sung by Nidhu Babu, was popular in 18th and 19th-century Bengal.

Thumri is a semi-classical style that began in Uttar Pradesh during the court of Nawab Wajid Ali Shah. Its lyrics are in older Hindi dialects like Brij Bhasha, Awadhi, and Bhojpuri. Thumri often has romantic themes, focusing more on lyrics than raga. This makes it a good match for Kathak dance, which it was once performed with.

Recent performers of thumri include Abdul Karim Khan, the brothers Barkat Ali Khan and Bade Ghulam Ali Khan, Begum Akhtar, Nirmala Devi, Girija Devi, Prabha Atre, Siddheshwari Devi, Shobha Gurtu, and Chhannulal Mishra.

During Mughal rule, the Persian ghazal became a popular poetic form in Urdu. Classical poets like Mir Taqi Mir, Ghalib, Daagh, Zauq, and Sauda helped spread it among North Indian literary circles. Ghazal music, based on romantic poetry, is popular in Central Asia, the Middle East, and other regions worldwide.

Instruments

Hindustani music is mainly known for its vocal performances, but instrumental music has been around for a very long time. In recent years, especially outside of South Asia, instrumental Hindustani music has become more popular than vocal music. This is because instrumental music often has a different style, faster tempo, and because the lyrics in vocal music can be hard for some people to understand.

Many instruments are used in Hindustani classical music. The veena, a string instrument, was once considered the most important, but it is rarely played today. It has been replaced by the sitar and sarod, which were influenced by Persian music. The tambura is also very important because it provides a steady, foundational sound that other instruments follow during a performance. Among bowed instruments, the sarangi and violin are commonly used. Important wind instruments include the bansuri, shehnai, and harmonium. In the group of percussion instruments, the tabla and pakhavaj are the most popular. Instruments like the surbahar, sursringar, santoor, and slide guitar are used less often. Many other instruments have also been used in different ways over time.

Festivals

One of the earliest modern music festivals that features Hindustani classical music is the Harballabh Sangeet Sammelan, which was started in 1875 in Jallandhar. Other festivals include Sankatmochan Sangeet Samarth in Varanasi, Dover Lane Music Conference, which began in 1952 in Kolkata, Sawai Gandharva Bhimsen Festival, which started in 1953 in Pune, ITC SRA Sangeet Sammelan, which has been held since the early 1970s, the Society for the Promotion of Indian Classical Music And Culture Amongst Youth, or SPIC MACAY, which was established in 1977, and Pandit Nanhku Maharaj, which began in 1995.