Samba (pronounced "sah-MAH") is a term used to describe many types of rhythms that form the foundation of well-known Brazilian music styles. These rhythms originated in the Afro-Brazilian communities of Bahia during the late 1800s and early 1900s. The word "samba" is used as a name or prefix for different rhythmic styles, such as samba urbano carioca (urban Carioca samba) and samba de roda (sometimes called rural samba). These styles mostly developed in the states of Rio de Janeiro and Bahia. Samba has roots in West African musical traditions, especially those connected to early rural samba during the colonial and imperial periods. It is considered one of Brazil’s most important cultural phenomena and a symbol of the country. The word "samba" has been part of the Portuguese language since the 1800s and originally meant a "popular dance." Over time, its meaning expanded to include a "batuque-like circle dance," a dance style, and a "music genre." This process of becoming a musical genre began in the 1910s, with the song "Pelo Telefone" (1917) marking a key milestone. Although called "samba" by its creators, the public, and the music industry, this early style was more closely related to maxixe than to samba itself in terms of rhythm and instruments.
Samba was formally structured as a musical genre in the late 1920s in the neighborhood of Estácio and later spread to Oswaldo Cruz and other parts of Rio de Janeiro through commuter rail. Today, samba is closely associated with its rhythm. This new style introduced changes in rhythm, melody, and themes. Its rhythm became more drum-heavy and syncopated, with a faster tempo, longer notes, and a more complex cadence than earlier styles. The "Estácio paradigm" also changed how samba songs were organized, with clear first and second parts in both melody and lyrics. This helped define urban Carioca samba as a modern and complete genre. Samba schools played a key role in shaping and legitimizing the rhythm’s aesthetic, while radio broadcasting helped spread the genre and its performers. As a result, samba became a major symbol of Brazilian identity. Initially criticized and rejected for its working-class roots, samba later gained support from upper-class members and cultural leaders.
At the same time, the "Estácio paradigm" led to the creation of new sub-genres and styles of samba throughout the 20th century. During the "golden age" of Brazilian music, samba developed many categories, some of which are widely accepted, such as bossa nova, pagode, partido alto, samba de breque, samba-canção, samba de enredo, and samba de terreiro. Other terms, like samba do barulho ("noise samba"), samba epistolar ("epistolary samba"), and samba fonético ("phonetic samba"), are less precise. Some names, such as sambalada, sambolero, and sambão joia, are even considered derogatory.
Modern samba, which began in the early 1900s, typically uses a 4-beat rhythm with a sung chorus that follows a batucada rhythm. It includes multiple verses that declare ideas or stories. Traditional instruments include percussion items like the pandeiro, cuíca, tamborim, ganzá, and surdo. Instruments inspired by choro music, such as the classical guitar and cavaquinho, also accompany samba. In 2005, UNESCO recognized Samba de Roda as part of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity. In 2007, Brazil’s National Institute of Historic and Artistic Heritage declared Carioca samba and three of its forms—samba de terreiro, partido-alto, and samba de enredo—as cultural heritage in Brazil.
Etymology and definition
Experts do not agree on where the word "samba" came from. One old idea, shared in the newspaper Diário de Pernambuco in 1830, suggested the word might have come from the Bantu language. The word appeared in a newspaper article that discussed sending soldiers to the countryside of Pernambuco State. The article mentioned activities like fishing, climbing coconut trees, and enjoying music with a "viola" and "samba." Another early use of the word was in a humorous newspaper called O Carapuceiro in February 1838. A writer named Father Miguel Lopes Gama used the term "samba d'almocreve," which described a type of lively event (a dance drama) popular among Black people at that time, not the musical genre known today. According to Hiram Araújo da Costa, enslaved people in Bahia held dance festivals called "samba" for many years. In Rio de Janeiro, the word "samba" became known at the end of the 19th century, linked to rural celebrations, Black communities, and the Northeast region of Brazil.
For much of Brazil’s colonial and imperial history, the words "batuque" and "samba" were used to describe African cultural events that included dancing (especially "umbigada"), singing, and playing instruments. By the late 19th century, "samba" was part of the Portuguese language, describing various types of dances performed by enslaved Africans, such as "xiba," "fandango," "catereté," "candomblé," and "baião." These dances had unique features in each Brazilian state, shaped by the diversity of African ethnic groups and the traditions of the regions where they lived. In the 20th century, the word "samba" took on new meanings, including a type of dance similar to "batuque" and a style of popular music.
The word "samba" first appeared in a musical context in 1913 in the song Em casa de baiana, labeled as a "samba de partido-alto." The following year, it was used in songs like A viola está magoada and Moleque vagabundo. In 1916, the famous song Pelo Telefone was released as a "samba carnavalesco" ("carnival samba") and is considered the starting point of modern Carioca samba.
Roots
During a study in the Northeast Region of Brazil in 1938, writer Mário de Andrade observed that in rural areas, the word "samba" referred to the event where the dance took place, the style of dancing, and the music played for the dance. Urban Carioca samba, from Rio de Janeiro, was influenced by traditions from rural communities across Brazil. Folklorist Oneida Alvarenga was the first to list early popular dances, such as coco, tambor de crioula, lundu, chula or fandango, baiano, cateretê, quimbere, mbeque, caxambu, and xiba. Later, Jorge Sabino and Raul Lody added samba de coco, sambada (also called coco de roda), samba de matuto, samba de caboclo, and jongo to this list.
One of the most important dances in the development of Carioca samba is samba de roda, or "circle samba," which was practiced in Bahia's Recôncavo region. This dance was usually performed outdoors by a solo dancer, while others in the circle sang and played instruments, alternating between solo and group parts. The basic steps of Bahian circle samba were named corta-a-jaca, separa-o-visgo, and apanha-o-bago (meaning "cut the jackfruit," "separate the birdlime," and "pick the grape"), along with a step performed only by women. Researchers Roberto Mendes and Waldomiro Junior found that elements from other cultures, such as the Arab pandeiro drum and the Portuguese viola instrument, were gradually added to African batuques, which evolved into samba corrido and samba chulado.
In São Paulo state, another early form of rural samba developed, mainly in cities along the Tietê River. This samba was divided into two types: samba de bumbo, which used a large bass drum for percussion, and batuque de umbigada, which used tambu, quinjengue, and guaiá instruments.
The partido alto, a traditional sung form of rural samba in Rio de Janeiro, consists of two parts—choir and solo—and is performed spontaneously. It originated in Greater Rio de Janeiro and combines elements of Bahian circle samba, calango singing, and a transition from rural samba to urban 20th-century Rio samba, according to researchers Lopes and Simas.
In its early years, samba was banned by the Brazilian government. It began in the favelas and was an Afro-Brazilian musical style that brought people together in celebration, which the Brazilian elite did not support. They considered samba to be vulgar, immoral, and inferior. This attitude was based on racism, classism, and religious prejudice, as samba's use of African drumming was linked to Afro-Brazilian religions, which were long discriminated against in Brazil, especially in the early 20th century.
Many early samba composers were mistakenly believed to be leaders of African-origin religious groups, leading to police crackdowns. Samba gatherings were often shut down, with musicians arrested and their instruments destroyed. Because of this, samba was practiced secretly, with community members hosting parties at home to avoid persecution. Over time, samba became a key part of Brazilian culture and a highlight of Carnival, though its origins involved defying government rules.
During colonial Brazil, public Catholic celebrations included people of all social classes, including enslaved Africans, who used these events to express their cultural traditions, such as the Congo Kings crowning ceremony and the Bantu celebration (cucumbi) in Rio de Janeiro. These events gradually shifted away from their religious roots and became part of Brazil's Carnival. From the cucumbis came the cordões cariocas ("Carioca strings"), which celebrated Brazil's mixed heritage, such as by dressing Black people in indigenous clothing. In the late 1800s, composer Hilário Jovino created the ranchos de reis ("ranches of kings"), later called ranchos de carnaval ("Carnival ranches"), in Pernambuco. One of the most important Carnival groups in Rio was Ameno Resedá, founded in 1907. This group, called racho-escola ("ranch-school"), became a model for future samba schools in Rio's hills and outskirts.
The urban Carioca samba
Rio de Janeiro was an important center of politics and culture in Brazil, shaped by the history of slavery. In the 1800s, more than half of the city’s population—then the capital of the Brazilian Empire—was made up of enslaved Black people. By the early 1890s, Rio had over half a million people, with only half born in the city. The other half came from other parts of Brazil, especially from the state of Bahia. After slavery ended in Brazil, many Black people from Bahia moved to Rio in search of better opportunities. This group, called "Pequena África" ("Little Africa") by Heitor dos Prazeres, settled near the port and later in neighborhoods like Saúde and Cidade Nova after urban changes led by Mayor Pereira Passos.
Black women from Bahia, known as "Tias Baianas" ("Bahian Aunts"), introduced new traditions, customs, and values from their culture. They created the first Candomblé religious spaces, shared practices like cowrie-shell divination, and spread knowledge about African-based religions like the Jeje-Nagô tradition. These spaces also hosted activities like cooking and music gatherings, where samba music began to develop.
Some well-known Tias Baianas in Rio included Sadata, Bibiana, Fê, Rosa Olé, Amélia do Aragão, Veridiana, Mônica, Perciliana de Santo Amaro, and Ciata. Tia Ciata’s home became a meeting place for musicians, religious leaders, and influential people. Regular visitors included musicians like Sinhô, Pixinguinha, Heitor dos Prazeres, João da Baiana, Donga, and Caninha, as well as writers like João do Rio, Manuel Bandeira, Mário de Andrade, and Francisco Guimarães (known as Vagalume). Vagalume first wrote about the song "O Macaco É Outro" in October 1916. Donga later registered the song as "Pelo Telefone" in the National Library on November 27, 1916. The song was recorded by Baiano with a classical guitar, cavaquinho, and clarinet and released in 1917. It became a hit during the 1917 Rio Carnival.
The success of "Pelo Telefone" marked the beginning of samba as a recognized music genre. However, some scholars argue it was not the first samba ever created, as earlier songs like "Em casa da baiana" (1913) and "A viola está magoada" (1914) were also recorded and classified as samba.
There was also debate about who wrote "Pelo Telefone." Some claimed Donga took credit for a song created by others during gatherings at Tia Ciata’s home. Sinhô, a musician, claimed he wrote the chorus "ai, se rolinha, sinhô, sinhô" and created another song in response. However, Sinhô was later accused of borrowing lyrics from others. At the time, composers were not always credited for their work because music was often controlled by publishers and record companies. This changed later with the rise of electrical recordings, which gave composers more rights to their music.
The popularity of samba grew in Rio, especially during events like the Festa da Penha and Carnival. By the 1920s, samba had become a major part of Brazil’s music industry. Performers like Carmen Miranda and Mário Reis helped shape a new style of samba that was simpler and more natural, inspired by earlier rhythms like lundu and maxixe. This style was called "samba-maxixe" or "samba amaxixado."
In the late 1800s and early 1900s, poor people in Rio faced challenges like high taxes, new building rules, and the loss of homes due to city changes. Many moved to hills near the city, such as Morro da Providência, where they lived in temporary shelters. These areas later became important parts of Rio’s cultural and musical history.
Urban samba instruments
Urban samba primarily has two rhythms and a changing tempo. It is played using percussion instruments and is accompanied by string instruments. In some places, wind instruments are sometimes added as well.