Capoeira music is the traditional music used in the Afro-Brazilian art of capoeira. It includes instruments such as the berimbau, pandeiro, atabaque, agogô, and reco-reco. This music is important in capoeira roda, which is the circle formed during a game. It helps set the style and energy of the game.

In capoeira, music is used to create a special place through the physical act of forming a circle (roda) and the sounds around the players. These sounds are thought to connect to the spirit world. This deeper religious meaning is more like a shared history for most capoeira groups. However, it is generally understood, as seen in the use of ngoma drums (the atabaques of candomblé) and the berimbau, which were once used in African rituals to speak with ancestors.

History

In the early days, capoeira was played with a large drum called ngoma, conga, or atabaque, along with hand clapping and singing. Until the mid-1800s, drums were an important part of capoeira music. In the early to mid-1800s in Rio de Janeiro, travelers described capoeira as a dance with drumbeats or hand clapping. In 1818, João Angola was arrested for having a small drum at a capoeira gathering. Playing a drum could lead to serious punishment. For example, on December 5, 1820, a slave named Mathias Benguela was whipped 200 times for using a drum. Despite these punishments, people continued to drum. An illustration from 1824 by Rugendas shows a person in a capoeira circle playing a drum.

In 1833, a law in Rio de Janeiro banned the use of African drums. Because the drums were large and hard to hide, people began playing them secretly in remote areas at night. To avoid being caught, enslaved people used simple percussion tools like clay, metal pieces, shells, and stones.

In 1859, a French journalist named Charles Ribeyroll described Afro-Brazilian dances on plantations in Rio de Janeiro province. He connected the conga drum to capoeira and the berimbau to batuque.

Gerhard Kubik, a 20th-century music expert, saw capoeira as a practice where the drum not only provides music but also helps guide and control the players. The berimbau is part of the candomblé tradition and was not used in capoeira until the 20th century. It first appeared as an instrument in capoeira in the early 1900s in Bahia. This change may have been influenced by musical preferences and the berimbau’s use as both a musical tool and a weapon.

Mestre Pastinha helped create the standard set of instruments used in capoeira Angola. He tested different instruments and sometimes used a guitar (viola de corda) or even Spanish castanets in the capoeira circle. The current standard setup, which includes three berimbaus, two pandeiros, one agogô, one reco-reco, and one atabaque, likely became common in the 1960s.

Instruments

The standard instruments used in capoeira today include:

• Up to three berimbaus
• Up to two pandeiros
• One agogô
• One reco-reco (a notched wooden tube similar to a guiro)
• One atabaque or conga

Not all rodas include every instrument listed. For example, Mestre Bimba often used only one berimbau and two pandeiros in his rodas. However, every roda always includes at least one berimbau.

The berimbaus lead the roda. Their rhythmic patterns guide how the players move. Some capoeira groups believe the lowest-toned berimbau (called a gunga or berraboi) is the main instrument, while others follow the middle-toned berimbau (called medio or viola). The roda begins and ends based on the lead berimbau player’s choice. This player decides who plays next, stops games, sets the music’s speed, and ensures players stay calm if they become too rough. Most groups agree that the highest-toned berimbau (called viola or violinha) is an accompaniment instrument, playing freely based on the rhythms of the middle-toned berimbau.

Songs in capoeira

In traditional capoeira, three main types of songs help form the structure of the capoeira roda. Understanding these songs helps people learn about early Brazilian history and culture. When people connect with the music, it helps them value capoeira as an important cultural tradition. The songs act as guides and teachers for capoeira’s culture.

The songs, called ladainha, corrido, and quadra, can be grouped in many ways. This list is not complete. Some songs can fit into more than one group.

The roda begins with the ladainha, a solo song usually sung by the most experienced person present, often the lead berimbau player. These songs may be made up on the spot, but they are often chosen from a collection of existing ladainhas. A ladainha can be as short as two lines or as long as 20 lines. Topics include moral lessons, stories, history, myths, and poetry, often using metaphors. The song follows a repeating pattern, with the same melody throughout, though there may be small changes. The ladainha uses a four-line structure, with the first line repeated.

An example of a ladainha’s message might be: "Nothing comes easily without hard work." The singer begins with a cry of "Ieeeeeeee" (pronounced "Yaahhhhhhh") to signal the start of the roda. The song ends with "Camará," "Camaradinho," or "É hora, hora," which marks the end of the ladainha and the start of the louvação (praise).

The louvação is the call-and-response part of the roda. It praises God, Mestres, capoeira, and thanks others. This section is also called chulas. The louvação can be made up on the spot, so listening carefully is important for singing the chorus. Like the ladainha, the louvação follows a repeating pattern, but its melody stays the same across all songs. It is usually sung in a major key, though it may sometimes be in a minor key if the ladainha is also minor. The chorus is sung together, though sometimes one singer adds a harmony a third above the melody.

During the ladainha, the two players (jogadores) sit at the foot of the berimbau. They begin playing when the corridos start.

Corridos are call-and-response songs influenced by the Sambas de Roda from Bahia. Unlike Mexican corridos, which are folk ballads, Bahian corridos are short songs with a static response. The chorus is often the first line of the song. Corridos relate to the actions in the roda, inspiring players, commenting on events, praising, warning, telling stories, or teaching values. There are corridos for welcoming the roda, ending it, asking players to be less or more aggressive, or to avoid grabbing others. Corridos can also be challenges (desafios). A singer may sing a corrido, then later sing a similar one, requiring the chorus to respond correctly. This is rare and requires skill. Challenges can also use ladainhas. Corridos have the most varied melodies, though many share the same melodies. This makes learning and improvising within corridos easier. Like the louvação, the response in a corrido is sung together, with occasional harmonies.

An innovation by Mestre Bimba, quadras sometimes replace ladainhas in Regional and Contemporânea capoeira schools. Quadras are songs with four, eight, or twelve verses, sung solo before the louvação. Unlike ladainhas, quadras do not follow a standard melody and have more varied melodies. Quadras can also be a type of corrido with four-line verses followed by a choral response. An example is:

"Capenga ontem teve aqui
Capenga ontem teve aqui
Deu dois mil réis a papai
Três mil réis a mamãe

Café e açúcar a vovó
Deu dois vintém a mim
Sim senhor, meu camará
Quando eu entrar, você entra
Quando eu sair, você sai

Passar bem, passar mal
Mas tudo no mundo é passar
Ha ha ha
Água de beber"

The term "chula" is often used for the louvação that follows the ladainha. In Bahia, the chula is a free-form song between dances in Samba de Roda, defining the structure of other samba styles. The chula is based on the quadra (quatrain) form and has roots in Iberia. The word "chula" comes from "chulo," meaning "common" or "rustic," similar to the Spanish word for peasants. How the term "chula" came to refer to the louvação is unclear, but its similarity to the ladainha and its use of corrido songs from the samba de roda tradition likely played a role.

Melody and Rhythm

The melodies in this music typically move from a fifth above (sometimes a sixth) and a third below the tonic. For example, in the key of C, the notes might be A (B) C D E (F) G (A). Here, C is the tonic, and the notes B (leading tone), F (fourth), and A (sixth) are often avoided. This is described in the concept of "Degree (music)." The ladainha, a type of song, may include the fourth below the tonic at the end of a section, paired with the word "camaradinho," to signal the start of the louvação. Instead of a tonic-dominant relationship, the ladainhas often use a tonic-supertonic progression. This is similar to bossa nova, though for different reasons. In this progression, the second note of the scale (D in the key of C) creates harmonic tension.

The berimbaus, a type of instrument, have harmonic potential but are not always tuned to the singers' voices. If they are, the high note of the gunga is usually used because it matches the start of the ladainha, avoiding a dissonant second interval. However, this is not a strict rule, as some singers may match the low note instead. This can make the music sound mixolydian, a scale common in Brazilian music from the Northeast. Whether the music sounds mixolydian or major is a topic of debate. The beginning yell of "Iê" is often a fifth above the tonic, which helps establish the key.

Rhythmically, the music uses a 4/4 time signature, which is common in music from the Angolan region of Africa. This rhythm is also found in Brazilian samba and Cuban guaguancó. The singing is in Portuguese, with some words from Kikongo and Yoruba. The lyrics often match the rhythm of the music, sometimes starting on strong beats and sometimes on weak beats or pickups, depending on the song. It is believed that capoeira's rhythms originated in Angola, but the berimbau was added to capoeira more recently, starting in the late 1800s. Earlier forms of capoeira used instruments like the omar (a Kikongo drum), hand clapping, and a transverse hand drum. Over time, other instruments such as whistles, castanets, and violas (small Brazilian guitars) were added.

The berimbau has been used for solo songs and worship. It became central to the roda (a circle of capoeira players) when metal wire became available for strings. Before that, plant fibers were used, which limited the instrument's volume. Today, the wire is often taken from old car and bicycle tires. Brass wire was used on berimbaus as early as 1824 in Rio. The addition of the caxixi (a shaking instrument) to the berimbau is a recent change that adds more rhythm. Some believe the berimbau was used as a weapon in capoeira, which was illegal until the 1930s.

Minor tonality ladainhas are less common but still exist. Mestre Traira, a capoeira master, used a minor pentatonic scale in his recordings. This scale creates a different sound compared to the more common ladainha melodies. The louvação (a type of song) also uses the pentatonic scale, and the corresponding corridos (songs) are adapted to fit it.

Unlike most Brazilian music, the syncopation (rhythmic variation) in capoeira is more subtle. It relies on the interaction between the lyrics' rhythm and the strong and weak beats of the isorhythmic patterns played by the instruments. This creates a shifting sense of where the downbeat (main beat) is, with overlapping call-and-response patterns driving the music forward. Below are two musical bars separated by a bar line (|). The downbeats are on 1 and 3, the upbeats on 2 and 4, and the anticipation (pickup) occurs between 4 and 1.

The Angola and São Bento Pequeno rhythms used in capoeira create syncopation by leaving beat 3 silent and emphasizing beat 4 with two short notes (as played on the berimbau). The São Bento Grande rhythm emphasizes both downbeats, creating a driving march feel. The atabaque (a drum) acts as the heartbeat of the music, playing steady pulses on 1 and 3 with open tones, often with an anticipation before beat 1 and a muted bass on beat 2.

The agogô (a double bell) is tuned to an open fourth or fifth and plays specific notes. The pandeiro (a tambourine) has more freedom in its playing compared to other instruments. Another version of the agogô's pattern includes an open tone played with the middle finger slightly away from the rim. Together, the supporting instruments build tension before beat 1, resolve on beat 2, and push the rhythm forward with an anticipation before beat 1. The berimbaus and song verses interact with this framework, creating complex syncopation despite simple patterns. Improvisation is limited in these instruments to avoid distracting from the songs and the actions in the roda. However, slight variations are allowed when the energy in the roda is high.

The berimbau's rhythms follow the supporting instruments but allow more improvisation. The Angola toque (a type of rhythm) includes a silence on beat 3, creating a gentle resolution. The São Bento Grande toque contrasts by emphasizing beat 3 more strongly. The viola berimbau, the highest-pitched of the three, adds rhythmic improvisation, similar to the quinto drum in Cuban rumba, though with fewer rhythmic subdivisions. In a single four-beat bar, capoeira music can use various subdivisions for improvisation.

Importance of music

The Bantu peoples, from whom capoeira originated, believe that music can connect different parts of the world and reach the spiritual realm. In the Congo, a large drum called ngoma is very important. It was used to send messages to warriors using a language they understood.

Mestre Pastinha always stressed the importance of music and singing in capoeira:

Today, in capoeira outside Brazil, students who do not know Portuguese well face difficulties singing and understanding the lyrics. Their lack of knowledge about Afro-Brazilian rhythms makes it harder for them to include capoeira rhythms, called toques, in their movements, known as ginga. Because of this, beginners and even more experienced students may avoid singing and playing instruments, choosing instead to focus on showy movements. This keeps the connection between music and movement weak, leading to a less rhythmic ginga that capoeira teachers work hard to improve.

Literature

• Balfour, Henry (1976) [1899]. The Natural History of the Musical Bow: A Chapter on the Development of Stringed Instruments. Portland, Maine: Longwood Press. OCLC 1819773.
• Capoeira, Nestor (2002). Capoeira: Roots of the Dance-Fight-Game. Blue Snake Books. ISBN 978-1-58394-637-4.
• Assunção, Matthias Röhrig (2002). Capoeira: The History of an Afro-Brazilian Martial Art. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-7146-8086-6.
• Capoeira, Nestor (2007). The Little Capoeira Book. Blue Snake Books. ISBN 9781583941980.
• Talmon-Chvaicer, Maya (2008). The Hidden History of Capoeira: A Collision of Cultures in the Brazilian Battle Dance. University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-71723-7.
• Desch-Obi, M. Thomas J. (2008). Fighting for Honor: The History of African Martial Art Traditions in the Atlantic World. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press. ISBN 978-1-57003-718-4.