The classical guitar, also called the Spanish guitar, is a type of guitar used in classical music and other styles. It is an acoustic instrument made of wood with strings made of gut or nylon. This instrument came before modern steel-string acoustic and electric guitars, which use metal strings. Classical guitars evolved from older instruments like the lute, the vihuela, and the gittern (a name based on the Greek word "kithara"). These instruments later became the Renaissance guitar and the baroque guitar from the 17th and 18th centuries. The modern classical guitar was developed in the 19th century by a Spanish craftsman named Antonio Torres Jurado.

For right-handed players, the traditional classical guitar has 12 frets that are not covered by the body. The left leg is raised on a foot rest to hold the guitar properly. The right hand, which plucks or strums the strings, usually plays near the back of the sound hole, called the classical or "sul ponticello" position. Sometimes, the right hand moves closer to the fretboard, called the "sul tasto" position, to create a different sound. Modern steel-string guitars usually have at least 14 frets clear of the body and are often held with a strap around the neck and shoulder.

The term "classical guitar" can sometimes refer to two other ideas besides the instrument itself. First, "modern classical guitar" may describe the current version of the instrument compared to older styles, which are also called classical or early guitars. Examples of early guitars include the six-string romantic guitar (about 1790–1880) and the five-course baroque guitars.

Classical guitars can be made with different materials and methods, but their typical shapes are either the modern classical guitar or the historic style similar to early romantic guitars from Spain, France, and Italy. Strings that were once made of gut are now often made of nylon or fluoropolymers, like PVDF. The three lowest strings (D, A, and low E) are usually wrapped with silver-plated copper wire.

The guitar family includes related instruments. For example, the flamenco guitar comes from the modern classical guitar but has differences in materials, construction, and sound.

Contexts

The classical guitar has a long history. People can tell apart different types of instruments and the music played on them. These include:

• Instruments
• Music (songs and pieces written by composers, arranged versions, and made-up music)

Both the instruments and the music can be studied from different viewpoints, such as:

Historical (time periods):
• Baroque guitar – 1600 to 1750
• Early romantic guitars – 1750 to 1850 (used for music from the Classical and Romantic periods)
• Modern classical guitars

Types of instruments from different regions:
• Spanish guitars (Torres)
• French guitars (René Lacôte, and others)
• German guitars (Herrmann Hauser, and others)

Types of music:
• Baroque court music
• Nineteenth-century opera and its influences
• Nineteenth-century folk songs
• Latin American music

Historical perspective

The term "classical guitar" is today mostly linked to the modern design. However, there is growing interest in early guitars and how they were used to play music from their time. Musicologist Graham Wade explains that different guitar types produce different sounds. For example, modern classical guitars use a bracing system called fan-bracing, while earlier guitars used ladder-bracing. These differences in construction affect how the guitar sounds and responds.

Historically, the style of music and the sound of the instrument are connected. For instance, Robert de Visée used a baroque guitar with a unique sound compared to 19th-century guitars played by Mauro Giuliani and Luigi Legnani. These 19th-century guitars differ again from the Torres models used by Andrés Segovia, which are suited for romantic and modern music like works by Moreno Torroba.

From a historical perspective, the type of guitar used is as important as the music style of the time. For example, baroque guitar music, written by composers like de Visée and Corbetta, cannot be played accurately on a modern classical guitar. Baroque guitars used courses—two strings played together—which created a distinct sound and texture. Their sound also had strong overtones, unlike modern classical guitars.

Today, Torres and post-Torres guitars are often used for music from all periods. However, some critics argue that these guitars, with their fan-bracing and strong fundamental tone, may not suit earlier music styles. Modern classical guitars are well-suited for romantic and modern works but may not match the sound of earlier periods. Andrés Segovia helped popularize the modern Spanish guitar globally, influencing many guitarists to focus on this style.

At the start of the 20th century, both ladder-braced and fan-braced guitars existed. However, ladder-braced guitars eventually declined in popularity, partly due to Segovia's influence. In Germany and Austria, some musicians shifted toward folk music, while Segovia's performances promoted the modern Spanish guitar style.

The 19th-century guitarist Francisco Tárrega helped make the Torres design popular for solo performances. However, Segovia's influence led to the widespread use of this design.

• Vihuela, Renaissance, and baroque guitars have bright, rich sounds with strong overtones. Their courses (double strings) create a unique texture.
• Early classical and romantic guitars have single strings but still emphasize overtones, producing a bright, intimate sound.
• Later in Spain, music styles favored a stronger fundamental tone, leading to the use of fan-bracing. This changed the guitar's sound from transparent and rich in higher tones to a heavier, more "broad" tone with a strong fundamental.
• Modern guitars with fan-bracing have a thick, heavy sound with more energy in the fundamental tone.

Style periods

During the Renaissance, composers who wrote music for the four-course guitar included Alonso Mudarra, Miguel de Fuenllana, Adrian Le Roy, Grégoire Brayssing, Guillaume de Morlaye, and Simon Gorlier.

In the Baroque period, well-known composers for the Baroque guitar included Gaspar Sanz, Robert de Visée, Francesco Corbetta, and Santiago de Murcia.

• A Baroque guitar made by Nicolas Alexandre Voboam II: This French instrument has five pairs of strings and a flat back.
• A Baroque guitar attributed to Matteo Sellas: This Italian instrument has five pairs of strings and a curved back.

From about 1780 to 1850, many composers and performers played the guitar. These included:
• Filippo Gragnani (1767–1820)
• Antoine de Lhoyer (1768–1852)
• Ferdinando Carulli (1770–1841)
• Wenzel Thomas Matiegka (1773–1830)
• Francesco Molino (1774–1847)
• Fernando Sor (1778–1839)
• Luigi Moretti (c. 1780 – 1850)
• Mauro Giuliani (1781–1829)
• Niccolò Paganini (1782–1840)
• Dionisio Aguado (1784–1849)
• Luigi Legnani (1790–1877)
• Matteo Carcassi (1792–1853)
• Napoléon Coste (1805–1883)
• Johann Kaspar Mertz (1806–1856)
• Giulio Regondi (1822–1872)

Hector Berlioz studied the guitar as a teenager. Franz Schubert owned at least two guitars and wrote music for the instrument. Ludwig van Beethoven, after hearing Mauro Giuliani play, said the guitar was "a miniature orchestra in itself." Niccolò Paganini was also a skilled guitar player and composer. He once said, "I love the guitar for its harmony; it is my constant companion in all my travels." He also said, "I do not like this instrument, but regard it simply as a way of helping me to think."

Francisco Tárrega (November 21, 1852 – December 15, 1909) was a famous guitarist and teacher. He is known as the father of modern classical guitar playing. As a professor at the conservatories of Madrid and Barcelona, he helped shape modern guitar techniques and raised the guitar’s importance in classical music.

In the early 1920s, Andrés Segovia popularized the guitar through tours and early recordings. Segovia worked with composers Federico Moreno Torroba and Joaquín Turroina to expand the guitar’s music collection. His South America tour increased public interest in the guitar and helped spread the music of Manuel Ponce and Heitor Villa-Lobos. Composers Alexandre Tansman and Mario Castelnuovo-Tedesco wrote new guitar pieces at Segovia’s request. Luiz Bonfá introduced Brazilian music styles, such as Bossa Nova, which became popular in the United States.

The classical guitar’s repertoire also includes modern works, sometimes called "New Music." Examples include Elliott Carter’s Changes, Cristóbal Halffter’s Codex I, Luciano Berio’s Sequenza XI, Maurizio Pisati’s Sette Studi, Maurice Ohana’s Si Le Jour Paraît, Sylvano Bussotti’s Rara (eco sierologico), Ernst Krenek’s Suite für Guitarre allein, Op. 164, Franco Donatoni’s Algo: Due pezzi per chitarra, Paolo Coggiola’s Variazioni Notturne, and others.

Performers who play modern guitar music include Jürgen Ruck, Elena Càsoli, Leo Brouwer (when he performed), John Schneider, Reinbert Evers, Maria Kämmerling, Siegfried Behrend, David Starobin, Mats Scheidegger, Magnus Andersson, and others.

This type of music is usually performed by guitarists who focus on modern and experimental styles.

In the contemporary music scene, some works are considered extremely difficult. Examples include Brian Ferneyhough’s Kurze Schatten II, Sven-David Sandström’s away from, and Rolf Riehm’s Toccata Orpheus.

There are also databases, such as Sheer Pluck, that list modern guitar compositions.

Background

The classical guitar and the music played on it have been developing for more than 400 years. Its history was influenced by older instruments, including the lute, the vihuela, and the baroque guitar.

— Bernard Hebb, Interview

History

The exact origins of the modern guitar are unknown. Some believe it began in Europe, while others think it came from another place. Ancient carvings and statues from Egypt, Sumeria, and Babylonia show instruments similar to the guitar. This suggests that modern Iranian instruments like the tanbur and setar are related to the European guitar, as they all share ancient roots but developed through different paths. Instruments called "guitars" existed as early as the 13th century, but they were built and tuned differently from today's guitars. The most significant changes to the guitar happened between the 1500s and 1800s.

In 1546, Alonso de Mudarra published a book called Tres Libros de Música, which includes the earliest known written music for a four-string guitar. This four-string instrument was popular in France, Spain, and Italy. In France, it was especially favored by the aristocracy. Many music books were published in Paris between the 1550s and 1570s, including works by Simon Gorlier and Adrian Le Roy. Other musicians, such as Robert Ballard, Grégoire Brayssing, and Guillaume Morlaye, also contributed to the music for this instrument. Morlaye’s book, Le Premier Livre de Chansons, includes illustrations of the four-string instrument and was published with Michel Fedenzat. They also published music by Albert de Rippe, who may have been Morlaye’s teacher.

The written history of the classical guitar begins in the early 1600s with the development of the vihuela in Spain. While the lute was popular in other parts of Europe, the Spanish did not adopt it because of its connection to the Moors. Instead, they created the vihuela, a lute-like instrument with two additional strings. The vihuela had six strings made of gut, tuned like a modern classical guitar, except the third string was slightly lower. It produced a bright sound and was large in size. Few vihuelas remain today, and most knowledge comes from diagrams and paintings.

The earliest known six-string guitar was built in 1779 by Gaetano Vinaccia in Naples, Italy. However, the date on the instrument is unclear. The Vinaccia family is known for creating the mandolin. This guitar shows no signs of being modified from a different type of instrument. Guitars claimed to be older than the 1790s are often questioned for their authenticity. This period also marks when Moretti’s six-string guitar method was published in 1792.

The modern classical guitar was developed in the 19th century by Antonio de Torres Jurado, Ignacio Fleta, Hermann Hauser Sr., and Robert Bouchet. Antonio de Torres, a Spanish luthier and musician, gave the modern classical guitar its final shape, including a larger body, more curved sides, a thinner top, and better internal support. The modern classical guitar replaced the older flamenco guitar, which was used for singing and dancing. A version of the classical guitar called the flamenco guitar was later created.

American classical guitar music has its own unique style, blending European techniques with American folk, blues, and other local traditions. Early pioneers like Justin Holland and William Foden helped establish this tradition, while later musicians such as Aaron Shearer, Christopher Parkening, and Jason Vieaux influenced how the guitar is played, taught, and used in the United States. For more details about this development, refer to the article on American Classical Guitar Music.

The modern classical guitar often uses a playing style called fingerstyle. The right hand’s thumb plucks the bass notes, while the fingers play the melody and other parts. Players often use their nails to pluck the strings. Notable musicians who used this style include Francisco Tárrega, Emilio Pujol, Andrés Segovia, Julian Bream, Agustín Barrios, and John Williams.

Performance

The modern classical guitar is usually played while sitting, with the instrument resting on the left lap and the left foot placed on a footstool. If a footstool is not used, a special support that uses suction cups to attach to the guitar can be placed between the guitar and the left lap. (There are exceptions, as some performers choose to hold the instrument differently.)

Right-handed players use the fingers of the right hand to pluck the strings. The thumb plucks the strings from the top downward (a downstroke), and the other fingers pluck the strings from the bottom upward (an upstroke). In classical technique, the little finger is used only to move along with the ring finger without touching the strings, helping the ring finger move more easily.

In contrast, Flamenco technique and classical music that uses Flamenco style involve the little finger moving somewhat independently during a technique called rasgueado. This technique involves quickly strumming the strings with the fingers in reverse order, using the back of the fingernail—a common feature in Flamenco.

During rasgueado, the Flamenco technique also uses the upstroke of the four fingers and the downstroke of the thumb. The strings are struck not only with the inner, fleshy side of the fingertip but also with the outer, fingernail side. This method was also used in a technique called dedillo on the vihuela, a type of instrument, and has recently been introduced on the classical guitar.

Some modern guitarists, such as Štěpán Rak and Kazuhito Yamashita, use the little finger independently. They compensate for the little finger’s shortness by keeping an extremely long fingernail. Rak and Yamashita also use the upstroke of the four fingers and the downstroke of the thumb (the same technique as in Flamenco rasgueado) both as a free stroke and as a rest stroke.

Like other plucked instruments (such as the lute), the musician touches the strings directly (usually by plucking) to create sound. This has important effects: Different tones or timbres (of a single note) can be produced by plucking the string in different ways (apoyando or tirando) and in different positions (such as closer or farther from the guitar bridge). For example, plucking an open string sounds brighter than playing the same note on a fretted position, which produces a warmer tone.

The guitar’s versatility allows it to create many different tones, but this finger-picking style also makes the instrument harder to learn than the strumming technique of a standard acoustic guitar.

In guitar scores, the five fingers of the right hand (which pluck the strings) are labeled by the first letter of their Spanish names: p = thumb (pulgar), i = index finger (índice), m = middle finger (mayor), a = ring finger (anular), c = little finger or pinky (meñique/chiquito).

The four fingers of the left hand (which press the strings) are labeled 1 = index, 2 = middle, 3 = ring, 4 = little. The number 0 indicates an open string—a string not pressed by a finger, allowing the full length of the string to vibrate when plucked. It is rare to use the left hand’s thumb during performance, as the neck of a classical guitar is too wide for comfort. Normal technique keeps the thumb behind the neck. However, Johann Kaspar Mertz is notable for using the thumb to press bass notes on the sixth string, notated with an up arrowhead (⌃).

Scores (unlike tablatures) do not always show which string to pluck (though the choice is usually clear). When needed, the score uses numbers 1 to 6 inside circles to indicate the string (from highest pitch to lowest).

Scores do not always show where to place the first finger of the fretting hand, but when helpful (such as with barrés chords), they use Roman numerals. These range from position I (index finger on the first fret) to position XII (index finger on the twelfth fret) or even higher, up to position XIX (the classical guitar often has 19 frets, with the 19th fret being split and not usable for pressing the third and fourth strings).

To create tremolo effects and smooth, fast scale passages, the player must practice alternating fingers—never plucking the same string with the same finger twice in a row. Using p for the thumb, i for the index finger, m for the middle finger, and a for the ring finger, common alternation patterns include:

• i-m-i-m: A basic melody line on the treble strings. This pattern appears to move smoothly across the strings and is often used for playing scale passages.
• p-i-m-a-i-m-a: An example of an arpeggio pattern. Many arpeggio patterns are used in classical guitar music.
• p-a-m-i-p-a-m-i: A classical guitar tremolo pattern.
• p-m-p-m: A way to play a melody line on the lower strings.

Repertoire

Music that was written specifically for the classical guitar began in the late 18th century, after the sixth string was added to the guitar. Before this change, the baroque guitar had five pairs of strings.

A guitar recital may include many types of music. For example, some pieces were originally written for the lute or vihuela by composers like John Dowland (born in England in 1563) and Luis de Narváez (born in Spain around 1500). Other works were written for the harpsichord by Domenico Scarlatti (born in Italy in 1685), for the baroque lute by Sylvius Leopold Weiss (born in Germany in 1687), for the baroque guitar by Robert de Visée (born in France around 1650), or for the piano by Spanish composers Isaac Albéniz (born in Spain in 1860) and Enrique Granados (born in Spain in 1867). The most famous composer who did not write for the guitar but whose music is often played on it is Johann Sebastian Bach (born in Germany in 1685). His works for the baroque lute, violin, and cello are often adapted for the guitar.

The earliest important composers who wrote music specifically for the guitar were from the classical period. These include Fernando Sor (born in Spain in 1778) and Mauro Giuliani (born in Italy in 1781). Their music was strongly influenced by Viennese classicism. In the 19th century, guitar composers like Johann Kaspar Mertz (born in Slovakia and Austria in 1806) were influenced by the popularity of the piano. It was not until the end of the 19th century that the guitar began to develop its own unique style. Francisco Tárrega (born in Spain in 1852) played a key role in this, often including elements inspired by flamenco music in his romantic miniatures. This was part of a larger movement in European music called nationalism. Albéniz and Granados were important figures in this movement, and their music is now part of the standard guitar repertoire.

The steel-string and electric guitars, which became popular during the rise of rock and roll after World War II, were widely played in North America and English-speaking countries. Agustín Barrios Mangoré of Paraguay and Heitor Villa-Lobos of Brazil helped bring Latin American music into the mainstream. Andrés Segovia, a famous guitarist, worked with Spanish composers like Federico Moreno Torroba and Joaquín Rodrigo, Italian composers like Mario Castelnuovo-Tedesco, and Latin American composers like Manuel Ponce of Mexico. Other notable Latin American composers include Leo Brouwer and Yalil Guerra of Cuba, Antonio Lauro of Venezuela, and Enrique Solares of Guatemala. Julian Bream of Britain encouraged British composers such as William Walton, Benjamin Britten, and Peter Maxwell Davies to write music for the guitar. His collaborations with tenor Peter Pears also led to song cycles by composers like Benjamin Britten and Lennox Berkeley. Other composers who wrote significant works for the guitar include Hans Werner Henze of Germany, Gilbert Biberian of England, and Roland Chadwick of Australia.

The classical guitar became widely used in popular and rock music in the 1960s, especially after guitarist Mason Williams made it famous with his instrumental hit "Classical Gas." Christopher Parkening, a well-known guitarist, said in the book Classical Gas: The Music of Mason Williams that "Classical Gas" is the most requested guitar piece, second only to "Malagueña," and is one of the best-known instrumental pieces today. In the field of New Flamenco, the music and performances of Spanish guitarist Paco de Lucía are known worldwide.

Few classical guitar concertos were written throughout history. However, some concertos are now widely known and popular. These include Joaquín Rodrigo's Concierto de Aranjuez (with its famous theme from the second movement) and Fantasía para un gentilhombre. Other composers who wrote famous guitar concertos include Antonio Vivaldi (originally for mandolin or lute), Mauro Giuliani, Heitor Villa-Lobos, Mario Castelnuovo-Tedesco, Manuel Ponce, Leo Brouwer, Lennox Berkeley, and Malcolm Arnold. Today, more contemporary composers are writing guitar concertos. One example is Bosco Sacro by Federico Biscione, which is for guitar and string orchestra.

Physical characteristics

The classical guitar is distinguished by a number of characteristics:

• It is an acoustic instrument. The sound from plucked strings is made louder by the soundboard and the hollow space inside the guitar.
• It has six strings, though some classical guitars have seven or more strings.
• All six strings are made from nylon or nylon wrapped with metal, unlike the metal strings used on other acoustic guitars. Nylon strings have much less tension than steel strings, as do older gut strings made from ox or sheep gut. The lower three strings (bass strings) are often wrapped with metal, such as silver-plated copper.
• Because of the low string tension, the neck can be made entirely of wood without a steel truss rod. The internal bracing can also be lighter.
• Modern six-string classical guitars are 48–54 mm wide at the nut, compared to about 42 mm for electric guitars.
• Classical fingerboards are usually flat and lack inlaid fret markers, or have small dot inlays on the side of the neck. Steel-string fingerboards often have a slight curve and inlays.
• Classical guitarists use their right hand to pluck the strings. Some players shape their fingernails to create a brighter tone and better contact with the strings.
• Strumming is less common in classical guitar and is often called "rasgueo" or "rasgueado" in Spanish. This technique uses the backs of the fingernails and is important in Flamenco guitar.
• Machine heads on the headstock of a classical guitar face backward, unlike most steel-string guitars where they point outward.
• The overall design of a classical guitar is very similar to the slightly smaller and lighter Flamenco guitar.

Parts of typical classical guitars include:

• Headstock
• Nut
• Machine heads (also called pegheads, tuning keys, tuning machines, or tuners)
• Frets
• Neck
• Heel
• Body
• Bridge
• Bottom deck
• Soundboard
• Body sides
• Sound hole, with rosette inlay
• Strings
• Saddle (bridge nut)
• Fretboard

The fretboard (also called the fingerboard) is a wooden piece with metal frets that forms the top of the neck. It is flat or slightly curved. The curve of the fretboard is measured by the fretboard radius, which is the radius of a circle that matches the curve of the fretboard. A smaller radius means the fretboard is more curved. Fretboards are most often made of ebony but can also be made of rosewood, other hardwoods, or phenolic composite ("micarta").

Frets are metal strips (usually nickel alloy or stainless steel) placed along the fingerboard. They divide the string length into parts that create different musical notes. When a string is pressed behind a fret, it changes the pitch. Each fret is spaced a half-step apart on the 12-tone scale. The ratio of the widths of two consecutive frets is the twelfth root of two (about 1.059463). The twelfth fret divides the string into two equal halves, and the 24th fret (if present) divides it again. Every twelve frets represent one octave. This arrangement creates equal tempered tuning.

A classical guitar’s frets, fretboard, tuners, and headstock are attached to a long wooden extension that forms the neck. The wood used for the fretboard is often different from the rest of the neck. The neck experiences significant stress, especially with heavier strings. The most common scale length for classical guitars is 650 mm, measured from the nut to the center of the 12th fret and doubled. Scale lengths can vary from 635–664 mm or more.

This is where the neck connects to the body. In traditional Spanish guitars, the neck and heel are one piece, with the body sides inserted into slots. Other guitars use separate necks joined with dovetail, mortise, or flush joints. These joints are usually glued and sometimes reinforced with mechanical fasteners. Many manufacturers now use bolt-on joints, which were once seen as low-quality but are now used by some top makers. Some believe the Spanish-style one-piece neck/heel block provides better sound, but tests have not confirmed this. Fleta, a Spanish guitar maker, used a dovetail joint influenced by his violin-making training. Mechanical joints help repair necks, which is more important for steel-string guitars due to their higher string tension. Nylon-string guitars often lack a truss rod because of their lower tension.

The body of the instrument greatly affects the sound of acoustic guitars. The guitar top, or soundboard, is carefully made from wood like spruce or red cedar. It is thin (often 2–3 mm thick) and strengthened by internal bracing. The back is usually made of rosewood, with Brazilian rosewood being highly valued. Other woods like mahogany may also be used.

Most of the sound comes from the vibration of the soundboard as energy from the strings is transferred to it. Luthiers (Torres, Hauser, Ramírez, Fleta, and C.F. Martin) have used different bracing patterns to strengthen the top and influence its resonance. Some modern makers use "double-top" designs with two thin wooden plates separated by Nomex or carbon-fiber bracing. The back and sides are made from woods like mahogany, maple, cypress

Tuning

The guitar uses many different tunings. The most common one, called "standard tuning," is:

• e – b – g – d – A – E

This order lists the tuning from the 1st string (the highest-pitched string, labeled e'—the bottom string when held for playing) to the 6th string (the lowest-pitched string, labeled E—the top string when held for playing, which is easier to pluck with the thumb).

The reason this tuning is "asymmetrical" (meaning the major third interval is not between the two middle strings, as it is in the viola da gamba) is likely because the guitar began as a 4-string instrument (with four pairs of strings) that had a major third between the 2nd and 3rd strings. Over time, a 5th string and then a 6th string were added, each tuned a fourth apart:

"The modern tuning developed in stages. A 16th-century tuning was C-F-A-D, which matches the top four strings of the modern guitar but is a tone lower than today’s standard pitch. The four-course guitar’s tuning was raised by a tone, and by the late 16th century, five-course instruments were used, adding a lower string tuned to A. This created A-D-G-B-E, one of many tunings used during that time. A low E string was added in the 18th century."

In this tuning, neighboring strings are at most five semitones apart. Other tunings, such as Drop D, are also used. In Drop D tuning, the 6th string is tuned down from E to D.