Neoclassicism, also spelled Neo-classicism, began as a cultural movement in the West that influenced art, literature, theater, music, and architecture. It was inspired by the styles and ideas of ancient Greece and Rome. Neoclassicism started in Rome, partly because of the writings by Johann Joachim Winckelmann during the time when ancient cities like Pompeii and Herculaneum were rediscovered. As European art students traveled to Italy and returned home, they brought back ideas from ancient Greece and Rome, which helped spread Neoclassicism across Europe. The main Neoclassical movement started during the 18th-century Age of Enlightenment and became most popular in the early-to-mid-19th century. It competed with another style called Romanticism. In architecture, Neoclassicism lasted into the 20th and 21st centuries.

In visual arts, European Neoclassicism began around 1760 as a reaction to the Rococo style, which focused on grace, decoration, and irregular shapes. Neoclassical art instead emphasized simplicity and balance, inspired by the designs of ancient Rome and Greece. These ideas were also influenced by the Renaissance period. Each Neoclassical movement chooses certain examples from ancient art and ignores others. Between 1765 and 1830, artists and writers honored the style of ancient Greek artists like Phidias. However, the sculptures they admired were often Roman copies of older Greek works. They avoided art from the Archaic Greek period and later ancient times. The discovery of ancient Palmyra’s art, shown in Robert Wood’s book The Ruins of Palmyra, surprised many. At the time, Greece was mostly unexplored and seen as dangerous because it was under the Ottoman Empire. So, Neoclassicists studied Greek architecture mainly through drawings and engravings, which sometimes altered or "corrected" the original designs.

The Empire style, a later stage of Neoclassicism, became popular in Paris during the time when Napoleon ruled France. Neoclassicism remained influential after the 19th century, with its style being revived in different periods, even into the 20th and 21st centuries, especially in the United States and Russia.

History

Neoclassicism is a revival of the styles and spirit from the classical period of ancient times. It was influenced by the ideas of the Enlightenment and was a response to the overly decorative Rococo style. While Neoclassicism is sometimes compared to Romanticism, this comparison is too simple because many artists and works show different influences. The artist Ingres, often seen as a leading figure in late Neoclassicism, highlights this complexity. The revival of classical styles began with the development of formal archaeology.

Giovanni Pietro Bellori, an Italian archaeologist and art theorist, is considered a key early figure in Neoclassicism. In 1664, he gave a lecture on the "Ideal" in art at the Accademia di San Luca in Rome. This lecture became a foundational statement for idealist art theory and greatly influenced European academic thought. Bellori’s ideas later shaped the Neoclassical theories promoted by Johann Joachim Winckelmann.

Winckelmann’s writings were crucial in shaping Neoclassicism in art and architecture. His books, Thoughts on the Imitation of Greek Works in Painting and Sculpture (1755) and History of Ancient Art (1764), were the first to clearly separate Greek and Roman art and to define periods in Greek art. He believed art should aim for "noble simplicity and calm grandeur" and praised the idealism of Greek art, which he saw as combining natural beauty with ideal forms. Though his ideas were not entirely new, his focus on copying Greek models strongly influenced artists. He argued that "the only way for us to become great or inimitable is to imitate the ancients."

The Industrial Revolution brought changes in manufacturing and increased prosperity. The Grand Tour, a trend of collecting ancient artifacts, helped spread Neoclassical ideas across Europe. The term "Neoclassicism" refers to a specific set of "classical" standards in each art form.

In English, "Neoclassicism" is mainly used for visual arts, while the similar movement in literature is called Augustan literature. This literary style had been popular for decades before Neoclassicism in visual arts became widespread. Similar trends occurred in French literature. In music, the classical period emerged, and "Neoclassicism" later described 20th-century developments. However, the operas of Christoph Willibald Gluck reflected a Neoclassical approach, as outlined in his preface to Alceste (1769). His work aimed to simplify opera by reducing ornamentation, increasing the role of the chorus, and using simpler melodies.

The term "Neoclassical" was not used until the mid-19th century. At that time, the style was described as "the true style," "reformed," or "revival," with varying interpretations. Ancient models were central, but the style was also seen as a revival of the Renaissance or a return to the austere Baroque of Louis XIV’s era. Ingres’s portrait of Napoleon even used styles from Late Antique art, which some critics disliked.

Neoclassicism was most prominent in architecture, sculpture, and decorative arts, where classical models were more accessible. Examples of classical painting were rare, so Neoclassicist painters relied on bas-reliefs, mosaics, and Renaissance works for inspiration. Winckelmann played a key role in studying ancient Roman paintings found in Pompeii and Herculaneum, though he was not impressed by them.

Greek painting was completely lost, so Neoclassicist painters recreated it using bas-reliefs, mosaics, and Renaissance art, such as works by Raphael and frescoes from Nero’s Domus Aurea. They also admired Nicolas Poussin. Many "Neoclassical" paintings focus more on classical themes than techniques. For decades, there was a heated debate about the superiority of Greek or Roman art, with Winckelmann and his followers generally favoring Greek art.

Painting, drawing and printmaking

• Fantasy View with the Pantheon and other Monuments of Ancient Rome; by Giovanni Paolo Panini; 1737; oil on canvas; 98.9 x 137.49 cm; Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, United States
• The ancient Capitol ascended by approximately one hundred steps; by Giovanni Battista Piranesi; around 1750; etching; size of the entire sheet: 33.5 × 49.4 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City
• A Philosopher Lecturing on the Orrery; by Joseph Wright of Derby; around 1766; oil on canvas; 1.47 x 2.03 m; Derby Museum and Art Gallery, Derby, England
• The Attributes of the Arts; by Anne Vallayer-Coster; 1769; oil on canvas; 90 x 121 cm; Louvre
• Ariadne Abandoned; by Angelica Kauffmann; before 1782; oil on canvas; 88 x 70.5 cm; Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister, Dresden, Germany
• Oath of the Horatii; by Jacques-Louis David; 1784; oil on canvas; 3.3 x 4.27 m; Louvre
• Self-Portrait with a Harp; by Rose-Adélaïde Ducreux; 1791; oil on canvas; 193 x 128.9 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
• Achilles mourning Patrocles; after John Flaxman; 1795; engraving after a drawing; unknown size; unknown location
• Portrait of Jean-Baptiste Belley, Ex-Representative of the Colonies; by Anne-Louis Girodet; 1796–1797; oil on canvas; 1.59 x 1.11 m; Palace of Versailles, France
• Cupid and Psyche; by François Gérard; 1798; oil on canvas; 186 x 132 cm; Louvre
• Julie Lebrun as Flora; by Élisabeth Vigée Le Brun; around 1799; oil on canvas; 129.5 x 97.8 cm; Museum of Fine Arts (St. Petersburg, Florida), United States
• Portrait of a Black Woman; by Marie-Guillemine Benoist; 1800; oil on canvas; 81 x 65 cm; Louvre
• Melancholy; by Constance Marie Charpentier; 1801; oil on canvas; 130 x 165; Musée de Picardie, Amiens, France
• Portrait of Charlotte du Val d'Ognes; by Marie-Denise Villers; 1801; oil on canvas; 161.3 x 128.6 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
• Bonaparte Visiting the Plague Victims of Jaffa; by Antoine-Jean Gros; 1804; oil on canvas; 5.2 x 7.2 m; Louvre
• Portrait of Empress Joséphine; by Pierre-Paul Prud'hon; 1805; oil on canvas; 244 x 179 cm; Louvre
• Napoleon I on His Imperial Throne; by Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres; 1806; oil on canvas; 2.62 x 1.62 m; Army Museum (Paris)
• The Genius of Art; by Karl Briullov; 1819–1821; gray paper, pencil, chalk, charcoal, and pastel; 65.2 x 62.2; Russian Museum, Saint Petersburg
• Tantalus and Sisyphus in Hades; by August Theodor Kaselowsky; around 1850; wall painting; unknown dimensions; on a wall of the Room of the Niobids, Neues Museum, Berlin

Early Neoclassical paintings were very different and exciting for people of that time, but today, some people find them boring or not interesting. For example, Kenneth Clark described Anton Raphael Mengs' painting Parnassus at the Villa Albani as ambitious, but others now say it is unexciting. John Flaxman used simple line drawings and figures mostly shown in profile to create prints of The Odyssey and other subjects. These prints once inspired many young artists in Europe but are now often ignored. Angelica Kauffman’s history paintings, though she was mainly a portraitist, were described by Fritz Novotny as soft and uninteresting. Artists removed the playful style of Rococo and the movement of Baroque but struggled to replace them. Without clear examples from ancient times, artists often used drawings of Greek vases or paintings by Raphael, as suggested by Winckelmann.

Some artists combined Neoclassical styles with Romantic ideas. Asmus Jacob Carstens, a German-Danish painter, planned many large mythological works but completed few. His drawings and color studies often showed the "noble simplicity and calm grandeur" that Winckelmann described. Giovanni Battista Piranesi created many etchings of Roman buildings and ruins, which were popular among travelers. His Imaginary Prisons series showed strange, large buildings that made people feel uneasy. Henry Fuseli, a Swiss-born artist who lived in England, used Neoclassical principles but often painted dramatic, Gothic scenes that reflected Romantic ideas.

Neoclassicism changed direction when Jacques-Louis David’s Oath of the Horatii became very popular at the Paris Salon in 1785. Though the painting celebrated republican values, it was commissioned by the royal government, and David painted it in Rome. He combined a perfect style with strong, dramatic scenes. The painting’s central perspective and figures arranged like a frieze reminded viewers of classical art. David became a leading French artist and later worked as a politician during the French Revolution and Napoleonic era. He created paintings that promoted Napoleon’s achievements but had

Sculpture

• An Arch-Rascal (no. 33 in a character head series); by Franz Xaver Messerschmidt ; after 1770; alabaster; height: 38 cm; Österreichische Galerie Belvedere , Vienna, Austria
• Mars and Venus ; by Johan Tobias Sergel ; c. 1775; marble; height: 93 cm; Nationalmuseum , Stockholm, Sweden
• Mercury or The Trade ; by Augustin Pajou ; 1780; marble; height: 196 cm; Louvre
• The Winter ; by Jean-Antoine Houdon ; 1783; marble; height: 145 cm; Musée Fabre , Montpellier, France
• Cephalus and Aurora ; by John Flaxman ; 1789–1790; probably marble; unknown dimensions; Lady Lever Art Gallery , Merseyside, England
• The Princesses Louisa and Friderica of Prussia ; by Johann Gottfried Schadow ; 1795–1797; marble; height: 172 cm; Alte Nationalgalerie , Berlin, Germany
• Venus Victrix ; by Antonio Canova ; 1804–1808; marble; length: 200 cm; Galleria Borghese , Rome
• Bust of Madame Récamier ; by Joseph Chinard ; 1805 or 1806; marble; 80 x 42 x 30 cm; Museum of Fine Arts of Lyon , France
• The Three Graces ; by Antonio Canova; 1813–1816; marble; height: 1.82 m; Hermitage Museum , Saint Petersburg, Russia
• Ganymede and Jupiter ; by Bertel Thorvaldsen ; 1817; marble; height: 94 cm; Thorvaldsen Museum , Copenhagen, Denmark

If Neoclassical painting had few ancient models to copy, Neoclassical sculpture had too many. At that time, there were very few actual Greek sculptures from the "Classical Period" starting around 500 BC. Most of the most admired works were Roman copies of Greek originals. Leading Neoclassical sculptors were famous in their time but are less well-known now, except for Jean-Antoine Houdon. His work focused on portraits, often busts, that showed the personality of the person being sculpted without making them look too perfect. His style became more classical over time, showing a smooth change from Rococo charm to classical dignity. Unlike some sculptors, he did not require his subjects to wear Roman clothing or be naked. He sculpted many important figures from the Enlightenment and created a statue of George Washington, as well as busts of Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, and other leaders of the new American republic.

Antonio Canova and Bertel Thorvaldsen, both from Denmark, lived in Rome. They made many portraits and large life-sized figures and groups. Both artists focused on creating perfect, ideal images. Canova’s work is known for its lightness and grace, while Thorvaldsen’s style is more serious. Their different styles can be seen in their versions of the Three Graces. These artists, along with John Flaxman, were still working in the 1820s. Romanticism did not quickly change sculpture, and Neoclassical styles remained the main type for most of the 19th century.

An early Neoclassical sculptor was the Swede Johan Tobias Sergel. John Flaxman was mainly a sculptor, creating serious classical reliefs similar to his prints. He also designed Neoclassical ceramics for Josiah Wedgwood. Johann Gottfried Schadow and his son Rudolph, one of the few Neoclassical sculptors to die young, were leading German artists. Franz Anton von Zauner was a major sculptor in Austria. The Austrian sculptor Franz Xaver Messerschmidt, from the late Baroque period, turned to Neoclassicism later in his career, before he had a mental crisis. Afterward, he made unique "character heads" of bald figures with extreme facial expressions. These works became popular again in the early 20th century during the rise of psychoanalysis. The Dutch sculptor Mathieu Kessels studied with Thorvaldsen and worked mostly in Rome.

Before the 1830s, the United States did not have its own sculpture tradition, except for tombstones, weathervanes, and ship figureheads. European Neoclassical styles were adopted there and remained popular for many years. This style is seen in the work of sculptors like Horatio Greenough, Harriet Hosmer, Hiram Powers, Randolph Rogers, and William Henry Rinehart.

Architecture and the decorative arts

Neoclassical art combined old and new ideas, looking back at history while also being modern and forward-thinking. It first became popular in Britain and France, influenced by French art students who studied in Rome and were inspired by the writings of Winckelmann. People in other countries, such as Sweden, Poland, and Russia, quickly adopted this style. At first, Neoclassical designs were mixed with familiar European styles, like the interiors made for Count Grigory Orlov, a lover of Catherine the Great. These rooms had some Neoclassical details, such as oval medallions and bas-reliefs, but most of the furniture still looked like Italian Rococo.

A second wave of Neoclassicism was more serious and focused on ancient styles, especially during the time of Napoleon’s empire. In France, the first stage of Neoclassicism was called the "Louis XVI style," and the later stages were called "Directoire" and "Empire." The Rococo style remained popular in Italy until the Napoleonic era brought a new focus on ancient designs.

Neoclassicism appeared in many areas, such as Empire furniture made in Paris, London, New York, Berlin, and Biedermeier furniture in Austria. It also showed up in buildings like Karl Friedrich Schinkel’s museums in Berlin, Sir John Soane’s Bank of England in London, and the United States Capitol in Washington, D.C. Josiah Wedgwood’s bas-reliefs and vases were also examples of this style. The style was used worldwide, including by Scottish architect Charles Cameron, who designed Italian-style interiors for Catherine the Great in Russia.

Inside buildings, Neoclassicism was inspired by discoveries of ancient Roman and Greek ruins, like those in Pompeii and Herculaneum. These discoveries started in the 1740s and became widely known in the 1760s. The ancient designs showed that even Baroque interiors, which looked very "Roman," were actually based on temple and basilica architecture. New interiors tried to recreate real Roman styles, avoiding the exaggerated designs of earlier periods.

Artists used flat, simple designs, often painted in monotones or sculpted in low relief. Motifs like medallions, vases, and busts were placed on swags of ribbon or laurel. Backgrounds might be red, pale, or stone-like colors. In France, this style was called the "Goût grec" or "Greek style." When Louis XVI became king in 1774, his queen, Marie Antoinette, brought this style to the royal court. However, furniture makers did not copy Roman designs until the 19th century, instead borrowing from ancient architecture, pottery, and stone carvings.

Starting around 1800, new examples of Greek architecture, seen through etchings and engravings, inspired a new wave of Neoclassicism called the Greek Revival. At the same time, the Empire style became a grand version of Neoclassicism, linked to Napoleon’s rule in France. This style matched the Biedermeier style in Germany, the Federal style in the United States, the Regency style in Britain, and the Napoleon style in Sweden. Some historians say the Empire style marked the end of Neoclassicism’s influence, turning it into a simple copy of ancient designs.

Neoclassicism remained important in art throughout the 19th century, often opposing Romanticism and Gothic Revival styles. Some cities, like Saint Petersburg and Munich, looked like museums of Neoclassical buildings. Gothic Revival, which started in the 18th century, focused on medieval-style buildings with rustic, romantic looks, unlike Neoclassicism’s use of Greek and Roman designs, geometric lines, and order.

Examples of Neoclassical architecture and design include:
– Central pavilion of the École militaire, Paris, 1752, by Ange-Jacques Gabriel
– Panthéon, Paris, by Jacques-Germain Soufflot and Jean-Baptiste Rondelet, 1758–1790
– Hôtel de la Marine, Paris, by Ange-Jacques Gabriel, 1761–1770
– Façade of the Petit Trianon, Versailles, France, by Ange-Jacques Gabriel, 1764
– Staircase and interior of the Petit Trianon, by Ange-Jacques Gabriel, 1764
– Commode of Madame du Barry, by Martin Carlin, 1772
– Hôtel du Châtelet, Paris, unknown architect, 1776
– Stairway of the Grand Theater of Bordeaux, by Victor Louis, 1777–1780
– Parisian corner cabinet, by Jean Henri Riesener, 1780–1790
– Large vase, 1783, Louvre
– Cabinet Doré of Marie Antoinette, by the Rousseau brothers, 1783
– Roll-top desk of Marie-Antoinette, by Jean-Henri Riesener, 1784
– Writing table of Marie Antoinette, by Adam Weisweiler, 1784
– Ewer, 1784–1785, Metropolitan Museum of Art
– Folding stool, 1786, Metropolitan Museum of Art
– Pair of vases, 1789, Metropolitan Museum of Art
– Armchair from Louis XVI’s Salon des Jeux, 1788, Metropolitan Museum of Art

Neoclassicism marks the change from the Rococo style to Classicism. Unlike the Classicism of Louis XIV, which used decorations as symbols, the Louis XVI style made them look as realistic as possible, like real laurel branches and roses. Symmetry is a key design rule. Colors used in interiors were bright, including white, light grey, blue, pink, yellow, light lilac, and gold.

Gardens

In England, the Augustan style of literature was closely connected to the Augustan style of landscape design. This connection is clearly seen in the writings of Alexander Pope. Some of the best-preserved examples of Neoclassical English gardens include Chiswick House, Stowe House, and Stourhead.

Fashion

• James Dawkins and Robert Wood Discovering the Ruins of Palmyra, by Gavin Hamilton, 1758
• Dresses from the Gallery of Fashion, 1794–1802
• Francis Russell, 5th Duke of Bedford in a Bedford Crop, by William Grimaldi after John Hoppner, early 19th century, based on a work of 1796–1797
• Madame Raymond de Verninac by Jacques-Louis David, with clothes and chair in Directoire style. "Year 7": that is, 1798–1799
• Revolutionary socialite Thérésa Tallien, by Marie-Guillemine Benoist, c. 1799
• Portrait of Madame Récamier, by Jacques-Louis David, 1800
• Henriette Victoire Elisabeth d’Avrange, comtesse de Relingue, with a coiffure à la Titus, by Louis-Léopold Boilly, 1810
• Point de Convention, by Louis-Léopold Boilly, c. 1801
• Illustration showing women playing badminton, hand-colored etching from the series Le Bon Genre, by François Joseph Bosio, 1801
• Portrait of Juliette Récamier, by François Gérard, 1802
• Kensington Garden dresses for June, fashion plate from Le Beau Monde, 1808

In fashion, Neoclassicism made women’s dresses simpler and more elegant, especially with the use of white clothing. This style became popular long before the French Revolution, but after the Revolution, it became common to copy ancient Greek and Roman designs in France. Before this, women often wore classical costumes only for portraits or special events like masquerade balls. However, during the Revolutionary period, women like Juliette Récamier, Joséphine de Beauharnais, and Thérésa Tallien wore these styles in public. A French official once said, "One could not be more sumptuously undressed," describing how elegant and simple their outfits looked. In 1788, an artist named Louise Élisabeth Vigée Le Brun held a Greek-themed party where women wore plain white tunics. Shorter hairstyles with curls became popular, and women began leaving their hair uncovered even outdoors. Thin ribbons or fillets were used to tie or decorate the hair instead of bonnets or other coverings.

Women’s dresses in the Neoclassical style were very light and loose, often white, with bare arms and a high neckline. The dress rose from the ankle to just below the bodice, where a thin, colorful hem or tie was added. This style is now called the Empire silhouette, though it appeared before Napoleon’s rule. His wife, Joséphine de Beauharnais, helped spread the style across Europe. A long rectangular shawl or wrap, often red with a decorated border, was worn in cold weather and placed around the midriff when sitting. By the early 1800s, these styles were common throughout Europe.

For men, Neoclassical fashion was more difficult to adopt. Shorter hairstyles helped end the use of wigs and white hair powder for younger men. Trousers, which were once seen as unrefined, became more accepted, replacing knee breeches. When the French government asked an artist to design a new "national costume" in 1792, it included tight leggings under a short coat. Many young men were in the military during the French Revolutionary Wars, and their uniforms, which showed tight-fitting trousers, influenced civilian fashion.

Artists had trouble showing trousers in their paintings, as they were considered unheroic. In some works, like James Dawkins and Robert Wood Discovering the Ruins of Palmyra (1758), men wore toga-like robes instead of trousers. In Watson and the Shark (1778), one man was shown nude, and others were only partially visible. However, artists like Benjamin West and John Singleton Copley showed trousers in heroic scenes, such as The Death of General Wolfe (1770) and The Death of Major Peirson (1783). Even so, trousers were still avoided in some paintings, like The Raft of the Medusa (1819).

Men’s hairstyles inspired by classical styles included the Bedford Crop, created by Francis Russell, 5th Duke of Bedford, as a protest against a tax on hair powder. He encouraged friends to adopt it by betting they would not. Another style, called coiffure à la Titus, had short, layered hair with some hair piled on the crown and loose locks. This style was worn by men like Napoleon and George IV of the United Kingdom. The style was popularized by an actor named François-Joseph Talma, who wore it in plays about ancient Rome. In 1799, a Parisian magazine reported that even bald men wore Titus wigs, and by 1802, more than half of elegant women in Paris wore their hair or wigs in this style.

Music

Neoclassicism in music is a 20th-century movement that revived the musical styles of the 17th and 18th centuries, such as the Classical and Baroque periods. These styles often used themes inspired by ancient Greece and Rome, not the music of the ancient world itself. In the early 20th century, people had not yet clearly separated the Baroque period in music, which Neoclassical composers mainly used, from what is now called the Classical period. The movement began as a response to the complex and confusing harmonies of late-Romanticism and Impressionism. It appeared at the same time as musical Modernism, which aimed to move away from traditional key systems entirely. Neoclassicism focused on clean, simple styles, allowing for dissonant reinterpretations of older musical techniques. It avoided the emotional and vague qualities of Romanticism and Impressionism, instead favoring strong rhythms, clear harmonies, and structured forms. This style also matched trends in ballet and physical education, where people revived "classical" dance and costumes.

Before World War I, the 17th–18th century dance suite had a small revival, but Neoclassicists were not fully satisfied with simple diatonic scales. Instead, they emphasized sharp dissonances from suspensions and ornaments, the angular sounds of 17th-century modal harmony, and the lively lines of counterpoint. Ottorino Respighi’s Ancient Airs and Dances (1917) helped shape the sound Neoclassicists aimed for. While borrowing from past musical styles has been common in history, certain periods saw musicians combine modern techniques with older forms or harmonies to create new works. Key features of Neoclassical music include: using diatonic tonality, traditional forms (such as dance suites, concerti grossi, and sonata forms), focusing on music without emotional or descriptive meanings, using light musical textures, and expressing ideas clearly and briefly. In classical music, this style was most noticeable from the 1920s to the 1950s. Igor Stravinsky is the most famous composer associated with this style; his Octet for Wind Instruments (1923) marked the start of this movement. A clear example of this style is Sergei Prokofiev’s Classical Symphony No. 1 in D, which resembles the symphonic style of Haydn or Mozart. In ballet, George Balanchine’s Neoclassical style simplified the Russian Imperial style by reducing elaborate costumes, steps, and storytelling, while also introducing new technical ideas.

Later Neoclassicism and continuations

• Beaux-Arts – Exterior of the Palais Garnier, Paris, designed by Charles Garnier, 1860–1875
• Beaux-Arts – Grand stairs of the Palais Garnier, designed by Charles Garnier, 1860–1875
• Beaux-Arts – Grand Central Terminal, New York City, designed by Reed and Stem and Warren and Wetmore, 1903
• Beaux-Arts – Hôtel Roxoroid de Belfort, Paris, 1911, designed by André Arfvidson
• Late Neoclassical – West building of the National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C., US, designed by John Russell Pope, 1941

After the middle of the 19th century, Neoclassicism was no longer the most common style. It was replaced by a style that mixed elements from different classical styles, called Eclecticism. The Palais Garnier in Paris is an example of this. Though it is mostly Neoclassical, it also includes designs from Baroque and Renaissance architecture. This was common in architecture from the late 1800s to the early 1900s, before World War I. The Beaux-Arts style in Paris was also known for mixing classical styles in this way.

Pablo Picasso used designs inspired by classical styles in the years right after World War I.

In American architecture, Neoclassicism was part of a movement called the American Renaissance, which lasted from about 1890 to 1917. The last major examples of this style were in Beaux-Arts architecture. These included the Lincoln Memorial, the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C., and the Roosevelt Memorial at the American Museum of Natural History. At the time, these buildings were criticized for looking old-fashioned. In the British Raj, Sir Edwin Lutyens’ planning for New Delhi marked the end of Neoclassicism’s popularity. World War II changed people’s ideas about the past and its styles.

A movement called Neoclassicism also happened in the non-visual arts during the 20th century. It included music, philosophy, and literature, and lasted from the end of World War I to the end of World War II. This movement avoided the extreme ideas of movements like Dada and instead focused on restraint, religion (especially Christianity), and traditional political ideas. In English literature, this movement began with T. E. Hulme, but became most famous with T. S. Eliot and Wyndham Lewis. In Russia, it was called Acmeism and was led by Anna Akhmatova and Osip Mandelshtam.

• Chest of drawers, a simple version of the Louis XVI style; designed by Clément Mère; 1910; made of maple, ebony, leather, and ivory; 87.5 x 96 x 37 cm; Musée d’Orsay, Paris
• Dressing table and chair, a version of the Louis XVI style; designed by Paul Follot; 1919; made of marble, lacquered, and gilded wood; unknown dimensions; Musée d’Art Moderne de Paris
• Hommage à Jean Goujon; designed by Alfred Janniot; 1919–1924; made of colored limestone; 220 x 235 x 129 cm; Calouste Gulbenkian Museum, Lisbon, Portugal
• Plate with design for an interior from the collection of projects Architectures; designed by Louis Süe and André Mare; 1921
• Boudoir from the Hôtel du Collectionneur, a simple version of the Louis XVI style; displayed at the 1925 Paris Exhibition; designed by Émile-Jacques Ruhlmann
• "Little Horses" dress; designed by Madeleine Vionnet; 1925; made of rayon crepe, black and gold seed beads; Museum at the Fashion Institute of Technology, New York
• Palais de Tokyo, Paris; designed by André Aubert and Marcel Dastugue; 1937
• Embassy of France, Belgrade, Serbia; designed by Roger-Henri Expert with Josif Najman as assistant; designed in 1926, built in 1939
• Château de Sept-Saulx, Grand Est, a simple version of the Louis XVI style; designed by Louis Süe; 1928–1929
• Daily Telegraph Building, London; designed by Charles Ernest Elcock, after consulting with Thomas S. Tait; 1928
• Design for Severance Hall grand foyer, Cleveland, US; designed by Walker and Weeks; around 1930
• Dumitru Săvulescu House (Bulevardul Dacia no. 73), Bucharest, Romania; designed by Gheorghe Negoescu; 1933
• Grave of the Străjescu Family, Bellu Cemetery, Bucharest; designed by George Cristinel; 1934
• Avenue Foch no. 53, Paris; designed by Charles Abella; 1939

Even though Neoclassicism was seen as old-fashioned after World War I, its principles and designs were still used. Art Deco became the main style during the time between World Wars. It was popular among wealthy people who liked French styles from the past, such as Louis XVI, Directoire, and Empire. At the same time, the French elite also admired modern art, like works by Pablo Picasso or Amedeo Modigliani. This mix of old and new styles is seen in the Palais de Tokyo in Paris, designed by André Aubert and Marcel Dastugue in 1937. Though it has no decorations, the way columns are used shows Neoclassical influence. Art Deco often used Neoclassical designs in a hidden way, such as in furniture by Émile-Jacques Ruhlmann or Louis Süe & André Mare, or in fashion that copied Greek lines. Architects like Auguste Perret in France kept the spacing of columns even in factories.

Art Deco mixed old and new styles