The pipa (Chinese: 琵琶; pinyin: pípá; Wade–Giles: p'i-p'a) is a traditional Chinese musical instrument that is played by plucking its strings. It is sometimes called the "Chinese lute" and has a wooden body shaped like a pear. The instrument can have between 12 and 31 frets, which are the raised lines on the neck that help players find notes. Another similar instrument is the liuqin, a smaller four-stringed plucked lute.

The pear-shaped pipa may have been used in China as early as the Han dynasty. Before the Song dynasty, the word "pipa" was used to describe many types of plucked stringed instruments. However, since the Song dynasty, the term has only referred to the pear-shaped instrument.

The pipa is one of the most well-known Chinese instruments and has been played in China for nearly two thousand years. Instruments in other countries, such as the Japanese biwa, Korean bipa, and Vietnamese đàn tỳ bà, are related to the pipa. Among these, the Korean bipa is the only one that is no longer widely used today.

History

There are some disagreements about where the pipa originated. This may be because the word "pipa" was used in ancient texts to describe many different stringed instruments from the Qin to the Tang dynasty, such as the long-necked spiked lute and the short-necked lute. Different ancient texts also gave varying descriptions of these instruments. Traditional Chinese stories often mention the Han Chinese princess Liu Xijun, who was sent to marry a Wusun king during the Han dynasty. It is said she invented the pipa so she could play music on horseback to comfort herself. Modern researchers like Laurence Picken, Shigeo Kishibe, and John Myers suggest the pipa may have come from outside China.

The earliest mention of pipa in Chinese texts appears in the late Han dynasty, around the 2nd century AD. Liu Xi, a scholar from the Eastern Han dynasty, wrote that the word "pipa" might have come from the sounds the instrument makes, though some modern scholars think it may have originated from the Persian word "barbat." Liu Xi also noted that the instrument was written differently in early texts (枇杷 or 批把) and was believed to have come from the Hu people, a term for non-Han groups living near ancient China.

Another Han dynasty text, Fengsu Tongyi, said pipa was a new instrument at the time, but later Jin dynasty texts from the 3rd century claimed pipa existed in China as early as the Qin dynasty (221–206 BC). An instrument called xiantao, made by stretching strings over a small drum, was used by workers building the Great Wall during the late Qin dynasty. This may have led to the development of the Qin pipa, a straight-necked instrument with a round sound box, which later evolved into the ruan. Another name for a similar instrument was Qinhanzi, though modern scholars disagree on its exact form.

The pear-shaped pipa likely came to China from Central Asia, Gandhara, and/or India. As people traveled along the Silk Road, the oval-shaped pipa spread through Central Asia and entered China, where it became known as the "pipa." Pear-shaped lutes were shown in Kusana sculptures from the 1st century AD. The pear-shaped pipa may have been introduced during the Han dynasty and called Han pipa. However, images of pear-shaped pipas in China only appeared after the Han dynasty, during the Jin dynasty (late 4th to early 5th century). During the Han dynasty, pipa had symbolic meanings: its length of three feet five inches represented the three realms (heaven, earth, and humans) and the five elements, while its four strings symbolized the four seasons.

Depictions of pear-shaped pipas became common during the Southern and Northern dynasties. Pipas from this time to the Tang dynasty had many names, such as Hu pipa and quxiang pipa, though some names may refer to the same instrument. Other pear-shaped instruments introduced to China included the five-stringed wuxian pipa, a six-stringed version, and the two-stringed hulei. By the Sui and Tang dynasties, pear-shaped pipas became popular in China. By the Song dynasty, the word "pipa" was used only for the four-stringed pear-shaped instrument.

The pipa was very popular during the Tang dynasty and was a key instrument in the imperial court. It was played as a solo instrument or in the imperial orchestra for performances like daqu, grand music and dance shows. Persian and Kuchan musicians and teachers were in demand in the capital, Chang’an, which had a large Persian community. Some finely carved pipas with inlaid patterns from this period are preserved in Japan’s Shosoin Museum. The pipa was closely linked to Buddhism and often appeared in Buddhist art, such as in depictions of the Eastern Dhṛtarāṣṭra, one of the Buddhist Four Heavenly Kings, and in wall paintings of the Mogao Caves near Dunhuang. The four- and five-stringed pipas were especially popular during the Tang dynasty and were also introduced to Japan, Korea, and Vietnam. The five-stringed pipa fell out of use by the Song dynasty but has been revived in modern times with a five-stringed version inspired by the Tang dynasty instrument.

During the Song dynasty, the pipa lost favor at the imperial court, possibly due to the influence of neo-Confucian ideas, which associated the pipa with foreign cultures. However, it remained a folk instrument and gained interest among scholars. The pipa changed over time.

By the Ming dynasty, fingers replaced plectrums as the main way to play the pipa, though finger techniques existed as early as the Tang dynasty. More frets were added to the instrument. The early pipa had four frets, but during the Ming dynasty, extra bamboo frets were added, increasing the number to about 10. The short neck of the Tang pipa became longer.

Over time, the number of frets increased further, from about 10 to 14 or 16 during the Qing dynasty, then to 19, 24, 29, and 30 in the 20th century. The four wedge-shaped frets on the neck became six by the 20th century.

The 14- or 16-fret pipa had frets arranged similarly to Western tones and semitones, starting at the nut. Some frets produced a 3/4 tone or "neutral tone." In the 1920s and 1930s, the number of frets was increased to 24, based on the 12-tone equal temperament scale, with all intervals as semitones. The traditional

Playing and performance

The name "pipa" comes from two Chinese syllables, "pí" (琵) and "pá" (琶). According to a text from the Han dynasty by Liu Xi, these words describe how the instrument is played. "Pí" means to strike outward with the right hand, and "pá" means to pluck inward toward the palm of the hand. During the Tang dynasty, the pipa was played using a large plectrum, a technique still used today for the Japanese biwa. However, some experts suggest that the long plectrum shown in ancient paintings may have been used like a bow to create sound through friction. Today, the plectrum is mostly replaced by the fingernails of the right hand.

The most basic technique, called "tantiao" (彈挑), uses only the index finger and thumb. "Tan" refers to striking the string with the index finger, while "tiao" refers to plucking with the thumb. Unlike a guitar, where fingers and the thumb pluck inward toward the palm, the pipa's fingers and thumb flick outward. Techniques that move in the opposite direction are called "mo" (抹) and "gou" (勾). When the index finger and thumb pluck two strings at the same time, it is called "fen" (分). The reverse motion is called "zhi" (摭). A rapid strum is called "sao" (掃), and strumming in the opposite direction is called "fu" (拂). A unique sound of the pipa is the tremolo, created by the "lunzhi" (輪指) technique, which uses all the fingers and thumb of the right hand. This technique can also be done with just one or more fingers.

Left-hand techniques are important for expressing emotion in pipa music. Techniques like vibrato, portamento, glissando, pizzicato, harmonics, and artificial harmonics—found in instruments like the violin or guitar—are also used in the pipa. For example, string-bending can create glissando or portamento. Unlike the violin or guitar, the frets on Chinese lutes are high, so the fingers and strings do not touch the fingerboard between frets. This allows for dramatic vibrato and other pitch-changing effects.

Some techniques create sound effects instead of musical notes. For example, striking the body of the pipa produces a percussive sound, and twisting the strings while playing creates a cymbal-like effect.

The pipa's strings are usually tuned to A2, D3, E3, A3, though other tunings exist. In the 20th century, softer silk strings were replaced with nylon-wound steel strings, which are too strong for human fingernails. To solve this, players now use false nails made of plastic or tortoise-shell, attached to fingertips with elastic tape. False nails made of horn were used as early as the Ming dynasty, when finger-picking became popular.

The pipa is held vertically or nearly vertically during performances. Earlier, it was held horizontally or nearly horizontal, with the neck pointing slightly downward or upside down. Around the 10th century, players began holding the instrument more upright as the fingernail technique became more important. Over time, the neck was raised, and by the Qing dynasty, the pipa was mostly played upright.

Repertoire

The pipa has been played alone or with groups of musicians since ancient times. Few early pipa pieces remain, but some are preserved in Japan as part of the togaku (Tang music) tradition. In the early 20th century, 25 pipa pieces were discovered in 10th-century manuscripts found in the Mogao caves near Dunhuang. These pieces may have originated during the Tang dynasty. The musical scores were written in tablature, a special kind of notation, but no details about tuning were included. This makes it difficult to accurately reconstruct the music or understand other symbols in the scores.

Three pipa pieces from the Ming dynasty were found in the High River Flows East collection, created in 1528. These pieces are similar to ones performed today, such as "The Moon on High." During the Qing dynasty, pipa scores were collected in Thirteen Pieces for Strings. At that time, there were two main schools of pipa music: the Northern and Southern schools. Music from these traditions was published in the first mass-produced collection of solo pipa pieces, now called the Hua Collection. This collection was edited by Hua Qiuping in 1819 and includes 13 pieces from the Northern school in the first volume and 54 pieces from the Southern school in the second and third volumes. Famous pieces like "Ambushed from Ten Sides" and "The Warlord Takes Off His Armour" were first described in this collection. The earliest-known piece in the Hua Collection is "Eagle Seizing a Crane," mentioned in a Yuan dynasty text. Other Qing dynasty collections were compiled by Li Fangyuan and Ju Shilin, each representing different schools. Many popular pipa pieces today were first described in these collections. Additional collections were published in the 20th century.

Pipa pieces in the traditional repertoire are categorized as wen (civil) or wu (martial), and da (large or suite) or xiao (small). Wen pieces are slower, softer, and more lyrical, often describing love, sorrow, or natural scenes. Wu pieces are faster, more rhythmic, and use varied techniques to depict battle scenes. Wu style was more common in the Northern school, while wen style was more common in the Southern school. Da and xiao refer to the size of the piece: xiao pieces are short and usually have one section, while da pieces are longer and have multiple sections. Traditional da pieces often follow a standard length of 68 measures, which can be combined to form larger works called dagu.

Famous pipa pieces performed today include:

• Shí Mìan Maífú ("Ambushed from Ten Sides")
• Xīyáng Xīao Gǔ ("Flute and Drum at Sunset," also known as Chūnjiāng Huā Yuèyè or "Flowery Moonlit River in Spring")
• Yángchūn Baíxuě ("White Snow in Spring Sunlight")
• Lóngchuán ("Dragon Boat")
• Yìzú Wúqǔ ("Dance of the Yi People")
• Dàlàng Táo Shā ("Big Waves Crashing on Sand")
• Zhàojūn Chū Saì ("Zhaojun Outside the Frontier")
• Bàwáng Xiè Jiǎ ("The Warlord Takes Off His Armour")
• Gāoshān Liúshuǐ ("High Mountains Flowing Water")
• Yuè'er Gāo ("Moon on High")

Most of these pieces date to the Qing dynasty or early 20th century. New pieces are also being composed, often following Western musical structures. Examples include Yìzú Wúqǔ ("Dance of the Yi People") and Cǎoyuán Yīngxióng Xiǎojiěmèi ("Heroic Little Sisters of the Grassland"). Some modern pieces use non-traditional themes and may reflect the political or social context of their time. For example, Yìzú Wúqǔ uses traditional Yi melodies and may highlight efforts to promote national unity, while Cǎoyuán Yīngxióng Xiǎojiěmèi celebrates individuals who were models of behavior in the People’s commune.

Schools

There are many different traditions of playing the pipa in various parts of China, and some of these traditions became schools. In traditions where the pipa is used to support storytelling through singing, there are styles such as Suzhou tanci, Sichuan qingyin, and Northern quyi. The pipa is also an important instrument in group music traditions like Jiangnan sizhu, Teochew string music, and Nanguan ensemble. In Nanguan music, the pipa is played in a nearly horizontal position, like a guitar, following an ancient style rather than the vertical position used today for solo performances.

During the Qing dynasty, there were two main schools of pipa playing: the Northern (Zhili) school and the Southern (Zhejiang) school. These schools later led to the development of five main schools connected to the solo tradition. Each school is linked to specific collections of pipa music and is named after the place where it originated:

• Wuxi school – connected to the Hua Collection by Hua Qiuping, who studied with musicians from both the Northern and Southern schools. This school combines elements from both traditions. The Hua Collection was the first published collection of pipa music and influenced many later players.
• Pudong school – connected to the Ju Collection, which is based on an 18th-century handwritten manuscript by Ju Shilin.
• Pinghu school – connected to the Li Collection, first published in 1895. It was created by Li Fangyuan, who came from a family of pipa players.
• Chongming school – connected to Old Melodies of Yingzhou, a collection compiled by Shen Zhaozhou in 1916.
• Shanghai or Wang school – named after Wang Yuting, who developed this style. This school combines elements from the Pudong and Pinghu schools. Wang did not publish his own notation book during his lifetime, but his students copied his notes by hand.

These schools developed when students learned to play the pipa from their teachers. Each school has its own style, rules for performance, notation system, and playing techniques. The music collections of each school may include different pieces, and even the same piece can vary between schools. For example, a piece called "The Warlord Takes off His Armour" has many sections, some with a set rhythm and others with a free rhythm. Schools may add or remove sections, and the number of free rhythm parts can differ.

Music collections from the 19th century used gongche notation, which shows only the basic melody and approximate rhythms, sometimes with simple instructions for playing (like tremolo or string-bending). Students learned how to fully perform these pieces by studying with their teachers. As a result, the same piece can be played very differently by students from different schools, with differences in how the music is shaped, speed, loudness, techniques, and decorations.

In recent years, many pipa players, especially younger ones, no longer follow a specific school. Modern notation systems, new compositions, and recordings are now widely available, so it is no longer necessary for players to learn from a master of a particular school to understand how to perform a piece.

Performers

The pipa is often linked to Princess Liu Xijun and Wang Zhaojun from the Han dynasty. However, the pipa played during that time was likely not shaped like a pear, as it is commonly shown today. Other early pipa players include General Xie Shang from the Jin dynasty, who was described as performing with one leg raised on tiptoe. The pipa was introduced to China from Central Asia, bringing skilled musicians from that region, such as Sujiva from the Kingdom of Kucha during the Northern Zhou dynasty, Kang Kunlun from Kangju, and Pei Luoer from Shule. Pei Luoer helped develop new finger techniques, while Sujiva introduced the "Seven modes and seven tones," a musical theory from India. This system influenced the imperial court for a time before being abandoned. These musicians greatly influenced the development of pipa playing in China. A famous family of pipa players, founded by Cao Poluomen, was active for many generations from the Northern Wei to the Tang dynasty.

Tang dynasty texts mention many well-known pipa players, such as He Huaizhi, Lei Haiqing, Li Guaner, and Pei Xingnu. Duan Anjie wrote about a competition between the pipa player Kang Kunlun and a monk named Duan Shanben, who disguised himself as a girl. Another story describes Yang Zhi, who secretly learned to play the pipa by listening to his aunt at night. Famous Tang dynasty performers included three generations of the Cao family: Cao Bao, Cao Shancai, and Cao Gang. Their performances were noted in literary works.

During the Song dynasty, players mentioned in texts include Du Bin. In the Ming dynasty, famous pipa players were Zhong Xiuzhi, Zhang Xiong (known for playing "Eagle Seizing Swan"), the blind Li Jinlou, and Tang Yingzeng, who may have performed an early version of "Ambushed from Ten Sides."

In the Qing dynasty, Chen Zijing, a student of Ju Shilin, was a noted pipa player. In the 20th century, Sun Yude and Li Tingsong were two of the most prominent pipa players. Both studied under Wang Yuting and worked to promote Guoyue, a blend of traditional Chinese music and Western practices. Sun performed internationally and became deputy director of the Shanghai Chinese Orchestra in 1956. Li held academic roles and studied pipa scales and tuning. Wei Zhongle, who played many instruments including the guqin, founded the traditional instruments department at the Shanghai Conservatory of Music in the 1950s.

During the 20th century, players from the Wang and Pudong schools were most active in performances and recordings. The Pinghu school was less active, with players like Fan Boyan. Liu Tianhua, a student of Shen Zhaozhou, increased the number of frets on the pipa and used equal-tempered tuning. The blind musician Abing from Wuxi was also notable.

Lin Shicheng, born in Shanghai, studied under Shen Haochu of the Pudong school and later taught at the Central Conservatory of Music in Beijing. Liu Dehai, a student of Lin Shicheng, graduated from the Central Conservatory of Music and developed a style combining elements from different schools. Ye Xuran, a student of both Lin Shicheng and Wei Zhongle, became a pipa professor at the Shanghai Conservatory of Music and performed the oldest Dunhuang Pipa Manuscript in the 1980s.

Other students of Lin Shicheng include Liu Guilian, Gao Hong, and Wu Man. Wu Man, internationally recognized, earned the first master's degree in pipa and won China’s first National Academic Competition for Chinese Instruments. She lives in California and collaborates with diverse music groups. Liu Guilian, born in Shanghai, later moved to Canada and performs with groups like Red Chamber and the Vancouver Chinese Music Ensemble. Gao Hong was the first to tour North America with Lin Shicheng and recorded the critically acclaimed CD "Eagle Seizing Swan."

Notable contemporary pipa players who perform internationally include Min Xiao-Fen, Zhou Yi, Qiu Xia He, Liu Fang, Cheng Yu, Jie Ma, Gao Hong, Yang Jing, Yang Wei, Yang Jin, Guan Yadong, Jiang Ting, Tang Liangxing, and Lui Pui-Yuen. Other notable players in China are Yu Jia, Wu Yu Xia, Fang Jinlong, and Zhao Cong.

Use in contemporary classical music

In the late 20th century, with the help of performers like Wu Man and Min Xiao-Fen in the USA, and composer Yang Jing in Europe, Chinese and Western modern composers started creating new music for the pipa. This instrument is used alone or with small groups of musicians or orchestras. Notable composers who wrote for the pipa include Minoru Miki, Thüring Bräm, Yang Jing, Terry Riley, Donald Reid Womack, Philip Glass, Lou Harrison, Tan Dun, Bright Sheng, Chen Yi, Zhou Long, Bun-Ching Lam, and Carl Stone.

In the early 2000s, Cheng Yu studied the old five-stringed pipa from the Tang dynasty and created a modern version for today’s use. This version is similar to the modern pipa but is slightly wider to fit the extra string and has soundholes on the front, like the original. It has not become popular in China, but in Korea (where Cheng Yu also researched), the pipa was revived. Korean versions of the pipa are based on the Chinese model, including a five-string version. The five-string pipa is tuned the same as a standard pipa, with an added bass string tuned to E2, the same as a guitar’s lowest string. The tuning is E2, A2, D3, E3, A3. Jiaju Shen from The Either plays an electric five-string pipa that combines parts of an electric guitar with the pipa. This instrument was built by Tim Sway and is called "Electric Pipa 2.0."

Use in other genres

The pipa has been used in rock music. The California-based band Incubus used a pipa that was borrowed from guitarist Steve Vai in their 2001 song "Aqueous Transmission," played by the group's guitarist, Mike Einziger. The Shanghai progressive/folk-rock band Cold Fairyland, formed in 2001, also uses pipa (played by Lin Di), sometimes using multiple recordings of the instrument in their songs. Australian dark rock band The Eternal includes pipa in their song "Blood," played by singer/guitarist Mark Kelson on their album Kartika. The artist Yang Jing plays pipa with different groups. The instrument is also played by musician Min Xiaofen in "I See Who You Are," a song from Björk's album Volta. Western musicians who play pipa include French musician Djang San, who added jazz and rock elements like power chords and walking bass to the instrument.

Electric pipa

The electric pipa was first created in the late 20th century by adding magnetic pickups, similar to those on electric guitars, to a traditional acoustic pipa. This change allowed the instrument to be made louder using an amplifier or a public address (PA) system.

Some Western pipa players have tried using amplified pipa. Brian Grimm placed a contact mic pickup on the front of the pipa and positioned it under the bridge. This setup let him connect to equipment used for live performances, computer music, and studio recordings. In 2014, a French zhongruan player and composer named Djang San made his own electric pipa. He recorded an experimental album where the electric pipa was the main instrument. He also added a strap to the pipa, like those on the zhongruan, so he could play both instruments like a guitar.

In 2014, an industrial designer from the United States named Xi Zheng (郑玺) designed and built an electric pipa called "E-pa" in New York. In 2015, pipa player Jiaju Shen (沈嘉琚) released a mini album. The album was composed and produced by Li Zong (宗立). It features music using the E-pa instrument, which combines traditional Chinese sounds with modern Western pop styles.

Gallery

• A sandstone carving from the Northern Wei dynasty (386–534 AD) shows how a pipa was held with a plectrum during the early period.
• A painted panel from the sarcophagus of Yü Hung depicts a Persian or Sogdian figure playing the pipa. 592 AD, Sui dynasty.
• A mural from Kizil shows an apsara (feitian) playing the pipa with her fingers, holding the instrument in a nearly upright position. Estimated to be from the Five Dynasties to Yuan dynasty (10th to 13th century).
• Liu Dehai, a pipa master, performing at the Musée Guimet.
• A modern pipa player holds the pipa in a nearly upright position.
• A diagram showing the measurements of a pipa in the collection of the Metropolitan Museum of Art.
• A pipa player is shown playing with the pipa behind his back. Located in Dunhuang, Mogao Caves.
• An early image of a pipa player in a group of musicians, found in Tomb No. 5 at Dingjiazha. Northern Wei dynasty (384–441 AD).
• A Song dynasty fresco shows a female pipa player among a group of musicians.
• A group of female musicians from the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period (907–960 AD).
• A mural from a Yuan dynasty tomb in Hengshan County, Shaanxi, shows a man playing the pipa.
• A Chinese woman playing a pipa, 1870.
• A group of Qing dynasty musicians from Fuzhou.