Samba is a general term for many rhythms that form well-known Brazilian music styles. These rhythms began in the late 1800s and early 1900s in Afro-Brazilian communities in Bahia. The word "samba" is used to describe different types of rhythms, such as samba urbano carioca (urban Carioca samba) and samba de roda (sometimes called rural samba). These styles mostly originated in the states of Rio de Janeiro and Bahia. Samba has roots in West African musical traditions, especially those connected to early rural samba during Brazil’s colonial and imperial periods. It is one of Brazil’s most important cultural events and a symbol of the country. The word "samba" has been in the Portuguese language since the 1800s and originally meant a "popular dance." Over time, it came to describe a type of dance similar to "batuque," a music genre, and a dance style. Samba became a musical genre in the 1910s, with the song "Pelo Telefone" from 1917 marking its beginning. Though called "samba," this early style was closer to maxixe in rhythm and instruments than to samba itself.
Modern samba as a musical genre was structured in the late 1920s in the neighborhood of Estácio and later spread to other areas of Rio de Janeiro through train lines. This new samba introduced changes in rhythm, melody, and themes. It used a faster tempo, longer musical notes, and more complex rhythms compared to earlier styles. The "Estácio paradigm" also changed how samba songs were structured, with clear sections for verses and choruses in both music and lyrics. This helped define urban Carioca samba as a modern genre. Samba schools and radio broadcasting played key roles in making samba popular across Brazil. Today, samba is a major symbol of Brazilian identity. Once seen as working-class music, it later gained support from Brazil’s upper class and cultural leaders.
The "Estácio paradigm" also led to the creation of many samba sub-genres and styles throughout the 20th century. During Brazil’s "golden age" of music, samba developed into styles like bossa nova, pagode, partido alto, samba de breque, samba-canção, samba de enredo, and samba de terreiro. Other names, such as "samba do barulho" (noise samba) or "samba epistolar" (epistolary samba), were less clear, while terms like "sambalada" or "sambão joia" were sometimes disrespectful.
Modern samba, which began in the early 1900s, is usually in 4/4 time and includes a sung chorus with a rhythm called batucada. It has verses and choruses, and traditional instruments include the pandeiro, cuíca, tamborim, ganzá, and surdo. Other instruments, like the classical guitar and cavaquinho, are inspired by choro, a Brazilian music style. In 2005, UNESCO recognized Samba de Roda as part of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity. In 2007, Brazil’s National Institute of Historic and Artistic Heritage declared Carioca samba and three of its forms—samba de terreiro, partido-alto, and samba de enredo—as important parts of Brazil’s cultural heritage.
Etymology and definition
There is no agreement among experts about where the word "samba" came from. One traditional view, mentioned in the newspaper Diário de Pernambuco in 1830, suggested the word originated from the Bantu language group. The term appeared in a note criticizing the idea of sending soldiers to the countryside of Pernambuco State, where they might have been idle and entertained by activities like fishing, climbing coconut trees, and enjoying music with a "viola and samba." Another early mention was in the humorous newspaper O Carapuceiro in February 1838, where a priest named Miguel Lopes Gama wrote about "the samba d'almocreve," which described a type of entertainment (a dance drama) popular among Black people at that time, not the future musical genre. According to Hiram Araújo da Costa, enslaved people in Bahia often called their dance festivals "samba." In Rio de Janeiro, the word became known at the end of the 19th century, linked to rural celebrations, Black communities, and the northern part of Brazil, which includes the northeastern region.
For many years during Brazil’s colonial and imperial history, the terms "batuque" or "samba" were used to describe African-origin gatherings that included dances (like umbigada), songs, and the use of instruments played by Black people. By the late 19th century, the word "samba" was in the Portuguese language, describing various types of popular dances performed by enslaved Africans, such as xiba, fandango, catereté, candomblé, and baião. These dances had unique features in each Brazilian state due to the diversity of African ethnic groups and the distinct characteristics of the regions where they settled. In the 20th century, "samba" took on new meanings, such as a "circle dance similar to batuque" and a "genre of popular song."
The first recorded use of "samba" in a musical context was in 1913 in the song "Em casa de baiana," labeled as a "samba de partido-alto." It later appeared in songs like "A viola está magoada" and "Moleque vagabundo" in 1914, and in 1916 in the famous song "Pelo Telefone," released as "samba carnavalesco" ("carnival samba"). This song is considered a key moment in the development of modern Carioca samba.
Roots
In 1938, during a study of traditional culture in Brazil’s Northeast Region, writer Mário de Andrade found that in rural areas, the word "samba" was connected to the dance event itself, the way the dance was performed, and the music used. Urban samba in Rio de Janeiro was influenced by traditions from rural communities across Brazil. Folklorist Oneida Alvarenga was the first expert to list early popular dances, including coco, tambor de crioula, lundu, chula or fandango, baiano, cateretê, quimbere, mbeque, caxambu, and xiba. Later, Jorge Sabino and Raul Lody added samba de coco, sambada (also called coco de roda), samba de matuto, samba de caboclo, and jongo to this list.
One of the most important dances in shaping Carioca samba, samba de roda (circle samba), was practiced in Bahia’s Recôncavo region. It was usually danced outdoors by one person, while others in the circle sang and played instruments. The basic steps of Bahian circle samba were named corta-a-jaca, separa-o-visgo, and apanha-o-bago, which mean "cut the jackfruit," "separate the birdlime," and "pick the grape," respectively. There was also a step performed only by women. Researchers Roberto Mendes and Waldomiro Junior found that elements from Arab and Portuguese cultures, such as the pandeiro and viola, were gradually added to African batuques, which later became samba corrido and samba chulado.
In São Paulo state, another early form of rural samba developed. It was practiced in cities along the Tietê River and divided into samba de bumbo, which used a bass drum for percussion, and batuque de umbigada, which used tambu, quinjengue, and guaiá for music.
Partido alto, a traditional form of rural samba in Rio de Janeiro, consists of two parts: a choir and a solo. It is performed spontaneously and remains a key sung version of rural samba. Originating in Greater Rio de Janeiro, it combines Bahian circle samba, calango singing, and a transition from rural samba to urban 20th-century Rio samba, according to Lopes and Simas.
In its early years, samba was banned by the Brazilian government. It began in the favelas and was an Afro-Brazilian musical style that brought people together in celebration. This was not accepted by the Brazilian elite, who saw it as inappropriate and of low quality. This attitude was based on racism, classism, and religious bias, as samba’s use of African drums was linked to Afro-Brazilian religions, which were heavily discriminated against in Brazil, especially in the early 20th century.
Many early samba composers were wrongly accused of leading African-origin cults, leading to police crackdowns. Samba gatherings were shut down, musicians arrested, and instruments destroyed. Because of this, samba was practiced secretly, with community members hosting parties in their homes to avoid punishment. Over time, samba became a key part of Brazilian culture and a highlight of Carnival, though its early history was marked by resistance to government control.
During colonial Brazil, public Catholic events included people from all social classes, including enslaved Africans, who used these celebrations to express their heritage. Events like the crowning of Congo Kings and Bantu revelries (called cucumbi) in Rio de Janeiro allowed Black communities to celebrate their culture. These events gradually moved away from Catholic traditions and became part of Brazil’s Carnival. From the cucumbis came the samba school cordões cariocas, which celebrated Brazil’s mixed heritage, such as by showing Black people in indigenous clothing. In the late 1800s, composer Hilário Jovino created the samba ranches called ranchos de reis (later known as ranchos de carnaval) in Pernambuco. One of the most important Carnival groups in Rio was Ameno Resedá. Founded in 1907, the self-named racho-escola became a model for future samba schools in Rio’s hills and outskirts.
The urban Carioca samba
Rio de Janeiro was a major political and cultural center in Brazil, shaped by the history of slavery. In the 1800s, more than half of the city's population, which was then the capital of the Brazilian Empire, were enslaved African people. By the 1890s, Rio had over half a million people, with about half of them born outside the city, mostly from the province of Bahia. After slavery ended in Brazil, many Bahians moved to Rio in search of better opportunities. These people, called "Pequena África" ("Little Africa") by Heitor dos Prazeres, settled near the port and later in neighborhoods like Saúde and Cidade Nova after city changes led by Mayor Pereira Passos. They brought traditions from Bahia, influencing Rio’s culture, especially during events like the Festa da Penha and Carnival.
Black women from Bahia, known as "Tias Baianas" ("Bahian Aunts"), created the first Candomblé temples in Rio, introducing practices like cowrie-shell divination and spreading African religious traditions. Their homes also hosted community activities, including cooking and music gatherings where samba began to develop.
Some well-known Tias Baianas in Rio included Sadata, Bibiana, Fê, Rosa Olé, Amélia do Aragão, Veridiana, Mônica, Perciliana de Santo Amaro, and Ciata. Tia Ciata’s home became a meeting place for musicians, religious leaders, and influential people in Rio. Regular visitors included musicians like Sinhô, Pixinguinha, Heitor dos Prazeres, João da Baiana, Donga, and Caninha, as well as writers like João do Rio, Manuel Bandeira, Mário de Andrade, and Francisco Guimarães (known as Vagalume). Vagalume, a journalist, wrote about the birth of the samba "O Macaco É Outro" in October 1916. Donga later recorded the song as "Pelo Telefone" and registered it at the National Library in November 1916. The song was released on record in 1917 and became a hit during that year’s Carnival.
The success of "Pelo Telefone" is often seen as the start of samba as a music genre. However, some scholars argue that earlier songs, like "Em casa da baiana" (1913) and "A viola está magoada" (1914), were also classified as samba. Debates also exist about whether Donga alone wrote "Pelo Telefone" or if he borrowed parts from others. Some claimed the song’s chorus was created by Sinhô, who later wrote his own response. At the time, composers often credited songs to whoever first recorded them, as music rights were controlled by publishers and record companies. This changed later with electrical recordings, which gave composers individual ownership of their work.
As samba grew in popularity, it became a key part of Rio’s culture, especially during Carnival and the Festa da Penha. Composers from Cidade Nova used these events to promote their songs. The Revue shows also helped spread samba by featuring early singers like Aracy Cortes.
In the late 1800s and early 1900s, poor people in Rio faced challenges like new taxes, strict building rules, and the destruction of homes during city reforms. Many moved to hills near the city, such as Morro da Providência, after their homes were demolished.
Urban samba instruments
The urban samba has two main rhythms and a changing tempo. It is played using percussion instruments and is accompanied by string instruments. In some places, other wind instruments are also used.