Arcangelo Corelli (Italian: [arˈkandʒelo koˈrɛlli]; February 17, 1653 – January 8, 1713) was an Italian composer, musician, and violinist from the middle Baroque era. His music played an important role in developing the modern sonata and concerto genres. He helped establish the violin as a central instrument in music. His work also marked the first time modern tonality and functional harmony were combined.
Early life and education
Corelli was born on February 17, 1653, in Fusignano, a small town in Romagna, which was part of the diocese of Ferrara in the Papal States. His family had lived in Fusignano and owned land there since 1506, when a relative moved from Rome to the area. Although they were wealthy, they were not part of the nobility, as some later stories incorrectly claimed. Corelli’s father, named Arcangelo, died five weeks before his birth. Corelli was raised by his mother, Santa (born Ruffini or Raffini), along with four older siblings: Ippolito Corelli (1643–1727), Domenico Corelli (1647–1719), and Giacinto Corelli (1649–1719).
Many stories and legends about Corelli exist, but there is little reliable information about his early life. This is especially true about his childhood and musical training, as many traditional stories about his early years have been proven incorrect.
Corelli studied music in Bologna and Rome, where he spent most of his career under the support of wealthy patrons.
According to the poet Giovanni Mario Crescimbeni, who likely knew Corelli, he first studied music with a priest in the nearby town of Faenza, then in Lugo, before moving to Bologna in 1666. Bologna was a major center for music at the time and had a strong group of violinists connected to Ercole Gaibara and his students, including Giovanni Benvenuti and Leonardo Brugnoli. Later sources say Corelli studied with several famous violinists, such as Benvenuti, Brugnoli, Bartolomeo Laurenti, and Giovanni Battista Bassani. However, these claims are not fully confirmed. Some sources also mention that Matteo Simonelli, a papal contralto, taught Corelli to write music in the "Palestrina style," but this is unproven. A later comment Corelli made to a patron suggests his education focused mainly on playing the violin.
Records from the Accademia Filarmonica of Bologna show Corelli became a member by 1670, when he was 17 years old. However, some people question whether this is accurate. Although the nickname "Il Bolognese" appears on the covers of Corelli’s first three published music sets (Opus 1 to 3), it is unclear how long he lived in Bologna.
Career and professional success
Stories about Corelli traveling to France, Germany, and Spain do not have evidence from that time. For example, the story that Corelli became famous in Paris at nineteen, where he was chased away by a jealous Jean-Baptiste Lully, seems to have come from Jean-Jacques Rousseau. It was also said that Corelli spent time in Germany working for Maximilian II Emanuel, Elector of Bavaria (supposedly in 1681), and in the home of his friend and fellow violinist-composer Cristiano Farinelli (between 1680 and 1685).
It is unclear exactly when Corelli arrived in Rome, but he was definitely active there by 1675. At that time, he was hired to play as a supporting violinist in Lenten oratorios at the church of San Giovanni dei Fiorentini, as well as in French national celebrations held each year on August 25 at San Luigi dei Francesi and during the ordination of a member of the powerful Chigi family at Santi Domenico e Sisto. In August 1676, he was already playing second violin to Carlo Mannelli at San Luigi dei Francesi. Although Rome had no permanent orchestra to provide steady jobs for musicians, Corelli quickly gained recognition, playing in many ensembles supported by wealthy patrons, such as Cardinal Benedetto Pamphili, for whom he performed in Lenten oratorios at San Marcello from 1676 to 1679.
Although Corelli published only six collections of music—five of which are trio sonatas or solo pieces and one of concerti grossi—he became famous across Europe, creating musical models that influenced many others. His work was admired for its balance, refined harmonies, rich textures, and expressive melodies. His music reflected Classical ideals, even though it belonged to the Baroque era. He used techniques typical of the Baroque school, such as dynamic contrasts, but always kept a sense of moderation. He was the first to fully use the new tonal system, which had been tested for over two hundred years. As a skilled violinist, he was considered one of the greatest of his time. His teaching and the spread of his techniques helped make the violin a respected solo instrument. He also played a key role in the development of the traditional orchestra.
Corelli was a major figure in Roman music and was respected internationally. He was invited to many courts and was part of the Pontifical Academy of Arcadia, a prestigious artistic and intellectual society of his time. People called him "the new Orpheus" and "the prince of musicians." His fame continued after his death. Today, his work is widely studied, and his sonatas are still used in music schools and performed in concerts. His place in the history of Western music is considered important, and he is seen as one of the greatest masters at the turn of the 17th and 18th centuries, as well as one of the earliest and greatest classicists.
In 1687, Corelli led performances for Queen Christina of Sweden. He was also a favorite of Cardinal Pietro Ottoboni, who later became Pope Alexander VIII. From 1689 to 1690, he was in Modena, where the Duke was generous to him. In 1706, Corelli was elected to the Pontificia Accademia degli Arcadi (the Arcadian Academy of Rome) and received the name Arcomelo Erimanteo. In 1708, he returned to Rome, living in the palace of Cardinal Ottoboni. That same year, he visited Naples at the invitation of King Philip V. The style of playing Corelli introduced, and continued by his students such as Francesco Geminiani, Pietro Locatelli, and others, was important for violin music. It is said that many famous violinist-composers of 18th-century Italy were influenced by Corelli, who became their "iconic point of reference."
Corelli used only a limited part of his violin’s range. His music rarely included notes above D on the highest string, sometimes reaching E in a higher position. A story says he refused to play a passage that reached a very high A in Handel’s oratorio The Triumph of Time and Truth (premiered in Rome in 1708). However, his compositions for the violin marked an important time in the history of chamber music. His influence extended beyond Italy, shaping the work of composers like Antonio Vivaldi, Georg Friedrich Handel, Johann Sebastian Bach, and François Couperin. Bach studied Corelli’s work and based an organ fugue (BWV 579) on Corelli’s Opus 3 of 1689. Handel’s Opus 6 Concerti Grossi were modeled on Corelli’s earlier Opus 6 Concerti, not the later Venetian-style concertos favored by Bach.
Corelli’s presence in Rome’s musical life was significant. He was welcomed by the aristocracy and led the famous Monday concerts in the palace of Cardinal Ottoboni for many years. Corelli died in Rome, leaving a fortune of 120,000 marks and a valuable collection of art and fine violins. He gave these to his benefactor and friend, who then shared the money with Corelli’s relatives. Corelli is buried in the Pantheon in Rome.
Works
Corelli's musical style thrived during the Baroque period, a time known for its detailed and rich artistic expression. His music evolved from the Renaissance style, where many voices sang together, but it showed more independence between the voices. Changes in society, religion, theater, and speech influenced the creation of new musical styles that better matched the spirit of the time. These changes led to new techniques in harmony, singing, and playing instruments. During this time, the tonal system, which organized music around specific notes, became the main way of writing music, replacing the older modal system. A style called figured bass became common, where the lowest and highest notes were written clearly, and the middle notes were left to the performer to fill in using numbers. The top voice was given more importance, which helped create the role of the soloist who could perform difficult music. Tuning systems were also changed, melodies often came from popular songs, and dissonances were used to express emotions. While polyphony, or multiple voices singing together, remained in sacred music, it became simpler so that the words could be understood more easily. The idea that music could express emotions, called the theory of affects, became important, especially in opera, which was the most popular music genre of the time. This genre greatly influenced instrumental music, which Corelli helped shape. The Baroque period also helped establish musical forms like the suite and the sonata, leading to styles such as the sonata da chiesa, sonata da camera, concerto grosso, and later the symphony. These changes were as significant in music history as earlier developments like the ars nova in the 14th century and 20th-century avant-garde music.
Bologna, where Corelli studied, was the second-largest city in the Papal State with about 60,000 people. It was home to the oldest university in the world and had a rich cultural life. Many churches had orchestras, choirs, and schools, and there were three large theaters for plays and operas. Music publishing houses and academies supported by nobles and clergy were common. These institutions helped set trends in music, including the Accademia Filarmonica, founded in 1666. A famous violin school in Bologna, started by Ercole Gaibara, influenced Corelli's playing style.
Rome, by contrast, was more important and wealthy, serving as the center of Catholicism. It attracted artists from across Europe and had many patrons who supported music and the arts. However, unlike Bologna, Rome had fewer stable musical groups in churches, and musicians often moved between events. The Church had a strong influence on culture, and its role changed with each pope. Pope Clement IX, for example, supported secular music and even wrote opera texts. Corelli fit well into this environment, though it is unclear who introduced him to it. He quickly gained the support of influential people in the city.
Corelli learned violin basics in Bologna from teachers like Giovanni Benvenuti and Leonardo Brugnoli, following the methods of Ercole Gaibara. He later taught many students and created his own school. However, few detailed descriptions of his technique survive, leading to debates among critics. Corelli did not write a manual about violin playing, making it harder to understand his methods. At the time, different violin schools in Italy used various techniques, including how to hold the instrument. Artists held the violin under the chin, on the shoulder, or against the chest, which affected their playing styles.
In the 18th century, Corelli was seen as a great violinist, but 20th-century critics sometimes questioned older reports about his skill. Some said he was not as technically advanced as his contemporaries, while others argued that his music was more about expressiveness than showy technique. His compositions were written for a general audience, not just experts, and they may not fully show his abilities as a performer. Events like a failed concert in Naples and a rivalry with Handel in Rome were sometimes used to question his skill, though these claims are not proven.
Research by Riedo suggests Corelli likely held his violin against his chest and angled it forward. This method was common before his time, popular in Rome during his era, and remained common until the 19th century. Francesco Geminiani, who may have studied with Corelli, wrote in 1751 that the violin should be held just below the collarbone, slightly tilted. This position was widely used by musicians in the early 18th century, making it easier to play the lower strings.
Legacy
Corelli's concertos are often popular in Western culture. For example, a part of the Christmas Concerto, Op. 6 No. 8, is used in the movie's soundtrack of Master and Commander: The Far Side of the World. Corelli's Op. 6 No. 2 inspired the theme for Sir Michael Tippett's Fantasia Concertante on a Theme of Corelli. British composer E. Florence Whitlock wrote Variations on a Theme by Corelli for violin in 1968.