The trombone is a musical instrument in the brass family. Like all brass instruments, sound is made when the player's lips vibrate inside a mouthpiece, causing the air inside the instrument to vibrate. Most trombones use a sliding tube to change the pitch instead of the valves found on other brass instruments. The valve trombone and superbone are exceptions, as they use three valves like those on a trumpet.

The word "trombone" comes from Italian, combining "tromba" (meaning "trumpet") and "-one" (a suffix meaning "large"), so the name means "large trumpet." The trombone has a mostly round-shaped tube, similar to a trumpet, unlike other brass instruments such as the cornet, flugelhorn, baritone, and euphonium, which have more cone-shaped tubes. The two most common types are the tenor trombone and bass trombone. When the word "trombone" is used alone, it usually refers to the tenor model. These instruments are not transposing, meaning they are written in bass clef at concert pitch, with higher notes sometimes written in tenor clef. They are tuned to B♭, an octave below the B♭ trumpet and an octave above the B♭ contrabass tuba. The E♭ alto trombone was once common but became less popular as the tenor trombone's range improved. However, it is now gaining popularity again because of its lighter sound. In British brass-band music, the tenor trombone is written in treble clef as a B♭ transposing instrument, while the alto trombone is written in concert pitch, usually in alto clef.

A person who plays the trombone is called a trombonist or trombone player.

History

The word "trombone" comes from the Italian word "tromba" (meaning "trumpet") and the suffix "-one" (meaning "large"), so it means "large trumpet."

During the Renaissance, the English name for the trombone was "sackbut." The first record of this name in court documents dates back to 1495 as "shakbusshe." This name is similar to "sacabuche," which was used in Spain as early as 1478. In France, the equivalent name was "saqueboute," first recorded in 1466.

In Germany, the trombone was called "Posaune" long before the slide was added to the instrument. This name was used for natural trumpets as late as the early 1500s.

The sackbut appeared in the 15th century and was widely used across Europe. Its use declined by the mid to late 1600s. It was played in outdoor events, concerts, and religious ceremonies. The sackbut often played the contratenor part in dance bands. It was also used with shawms in bands supported by towns and royal courts. In German cities, trumpeters and trombonists were hired to stand in city towers and announce the arrival of important people, showing the city's wealth and strength. These trombonists were often separated from those who played in groups like the alta capella wind ensembles and early orchestras, which performed in places like St. Mark's Basilica in Venice. The trombone in the 17th century was slightly smaller than today's model, with a more cone-shaped bell. Modern musicians use the term "sackbut" to describe this older version of the trombone.

Composers who wrote music for the trombone during this time included Claudio Monteverdi, Heinrich Schütz, Giovanni Gabrieli, and his uncle Andrea Gabrieli. The trombone often played the same parts as voices in religious music, but there were also solo pieces written for it in the early 1600s.

When the sackbut returned to use in England during the 18th century, Italian music had such a strong influence that the instrument became known as "trombone." This name remained in Italy and Germany as "trombone" and "Posaune," respectively.

During the later Baroque period, Johann Sebastian Bach and George Frideric Handel used trombones in some of their works. Bach sometimes used a slide trumpet, called "tromba di tirarsi," to play the same melody as the choir in religious pieces. He also used four trombones to match the choir in three of his cantatas (BWV 2, BWV 21, and BWV 38). Because trombones were rare, their solo parts were often played by other instruments.

The trombone's design changed little between the Baroque and Classical periods, but its bell became more flared. Christoph Willibald Gluck was the first major composer to use the trombone in an opera overture, in his opera Alceste (1767). He also used it in Orfeo ed Euridice, Iphigénie en Tauride (1779), and Echo et Narcisse.

Early Classical composers sometimes included solo parts for the alto trombone in divertimenti and serenades. These pieces were often taken from larger works and performed as standalone concertos. Examples include Leopold Mozart's Serenade in E♭ (1755) and Michael Haydn's Divertimento in D major (1764). The earliest known trombone concerto is Concerto for Alto Trombone and Strings in B♭ (1769) by Johann Georg Albrechtsberger.

Mozart used the trombone in operas, such as scenes with the Commendatore in Don Giovanni, and in religious music. A famous solo part in the Tuba Mirum section of his Requiem became a standard test piece for trombonists. Mozart's orchestras usually included three trombones (alto, tenor, and bass) to match the choir's voices. The earliest known symphony with a trombone section is Symphony in C minor by Anton Zimmermann, likely composed in the 1770s. The first confirmed date for using trombones in symphonies is 1781, the year Zimmermann died.

In 1807, Swedish composer Joachim Nicolas Eggert wrote a symphony with an independent trombone part. Ludwig van Beethoven is sometimes incorrectly credited with introducing trombones to orchestras, as he used them later in his Symphony No. 5, Symphony No. 6, and Symphony No. 9.

Trombones were used in operas, symphonies, and other works by composers such as Felix Mendelssohn, Ludwig van Beethoven, Hector Berlioz, Franz Berwald, Charles Gounod, Franz Liszt, Gioacchino Rossini, Franz Schubert, Robert Schumann, Giuseppe Verdi, and Richard Wagner.

During the Renaissance and early Baroque periods, trombones were often played with cornetts. As cornetts were replaced by oboes and clarinets, trombones continued to support the alto, tenor, and bass voices in choirs. When trombones joined orchestras, they became more similar to trumpets, and tenor trombones replaced alto trombones in many places. Germans and Austrians used alto trombones longer than the French, who preferred three tenor trombones until after World War II. By the mid-1800s, most countries used two tenor trombones and one bass trombone in orchestras.

Court orchestras and cathedrals no longer provided trombones for musicians. Instead, military bands used long F or E♭ bass trombones until around World War I. Orchestral musicians adopted the tenor trombone, as it could play any trombone part in orchestral music.

Valve trombones in the mid-1800s did not change the structure of orchestral trombone sections much. While they were less common in German and French orchestras, valve trombones remained popular in Italy and Bohemia, often replacing slide trombones. Composers like Giuseppe Verdi, Giacomo Puccini, Bedřich Smetana, and Antonín Dvořák wrote for valve trombones.

As the ophicleide and tuba were added to orchestras in the 19th century, bass trombones played higher notes than before. The bass trombone gained more independence in the early 20th century. Experiments with trombone sections included

Construction

The trombone is a long, mostly round tube with two U-shaped bends and a flared bell at the end. The tube is mostly round but has several narrow sections that affect how the instrument sounds. Like other brass instruments, sound is made by blowing air through pursed lips, which creates vibrations that form a standing wave in the instrument.

The trombone has a detachable cup-shaped mouthpiece similar to the baritone horn and closely related to the trumpet’s mouthpiece. It includes a venturi, a narrow part of the air column that adds resistance and influences the instrument’s tone. The slide section includes a leadpipe, inner and outer slide tubes, and bracing called "stays." Modern trombones use soldered stays instead of the loose stays found on older sackbuts, which were early versions of trombones.

The most unique part of the trombone is the slide, which lengthens the tube and lowers the pitch. During the Renaissance, sleeves called "stockings" were added to reduce friction on the slide. These were soldered to the inner slide tubes to slightly increase their size. Modern trombones have inner slides with a slightly larger diameter for the same purpose. The slide must be lubricated regularly. The slide connects to the bell section through the neckpipe and a U-shaped bend called the bell or back bow. A threaded collar holds the slide and bell sections together. Before the early 20th century, this connection relied only on friction.

Trombones often have a short tuning slide in the U-shaped bend between the neckpipe and the bell. This feature was designed by a French maker named François Riedlocker in the early 19th century. It was later added to French, British, German, and American models, though German trombones sometimes lacked tuning slides until the 20th century. This design places the tuning slide, which must be cylindrical, in a section of the tube that is otherwise slightly cone-shaped. In the early to mid-20th century, some manufacturers tried placing the tuning slide in the main slide to allow the bell to have a smooth cone shape. However, this design was abandoned due to added weight and alignment issues. Some makers have recently revived this idea with better materials.

Many trombones have one or more rotary valves connected to extra tubing, which lengthens the instrument and allows for alternate slide positions for certain notes. Like the trumpet, the trombone is considered a cylindrical bore instrument because it has long sections of tubing with a constant diameter. Tenor trombones typically have a bore size of 0.450 inches (11.4 mm) to 0.547 inches (13.9 mm) after the leadpipe and through the slide. The bore widens from the bow to the bell, which is usually between 7 and 8.5 inches (18–22 cm). Trombone bells (and sometimes slides) may be made from different brass mixtures, such as yellow brass (70% copper, 30% zinc), rose brass (85% copper, 15% zinc), or red brass (90% copper, 10% zinc). Some manufacturers offer interchangeable bells. Tenor trombone bells are usually 7 to 9 inches (18–23 cm) in diameter, with most between 7.5 and 8.5 inches (19–22 cm). Bass trombone bells are often 10.5 inches (27 cm) or larger. Bells may be made from two brass sheets or a single piece of metal shaped on a mandrel. The edge of the bell may have a wire to secure it, which affects the tone. Some bells are made from solid sterling silver.

Modern trombones often have a valve attachment, an extra loop of tubing connected to the bell section and controlled by a valve operated by the left thumb. This attachment helps extend the instrument’s low range and allows for alternate slide positions. The valve attachment was originally created by a German maker named Christian Friedrich Sattler in the 1830s for a type of trombone called the Tenorbaßposaune. Sattler’s design added about 3 feet (0.9 m) of tubing to lower the pitch from B♭ to F, controlled by a rotary valve. This design remains largely unchanged in modern instruments.

Valve attachments are most common on tenor and bass trombones but can also appear on smaller or larger sizes. The most common type of valve for these attachments is the rotary valve, used on many band instruments and student or intermediate trombones. Since the mid-20th century, new valve designs have been developed to improve the instrument’s sound, such as the Thayer axial flow valve and the Hagmann valve. These are often used on professional models.

Some trombones use three piston or rotary valves instead of a slide, as seen on valve trombones. The F attachment tubing usually has a larger bore than the rest of the instrument. For example, an orchestral tenor trombone’s slide bore is 0.547 inches (13.9 mm), while the attachment bore is 0.562 inches (14.3 mm). The attachment tubing also includes a tuning slide to adjust the pitch separately. This tuning slide is typically long enough to lower the pitch by a semitone when fully extended. The tubing is often coiled tightly to fit inside the bell section (closed wrap) or shaped in a single loop (open wrap). Open wrap tubing, introduced in the 1980s, allows for a freer sound but is less common in marching bands due to the risk of damage.

Some trombones use a tuning mechanism in the slide section instead of a tuning slide in the bell section. Placing the tuning slide in the bell section requires two cylindrical sections in an otherwise conical part of the instrument, which can affect the tone. Moving the tuning mechanism to the cylindrical slide section keeps the bell section conical, preserving the instrument’s sound quality.

Types

The most common trombones today are the tenor and bass, though trombones have also been made in sizes ranging from very small (piccolo) to very large (contrabass), similar to other instrument families like the clarinet. Most trombones use a slide to change pitch, but some, called valve trombones, use three valves like those found on other brass instruments.

The contrabass trombone is the lowest type. It was first made in the 1870s for an opera by Wagner. It has a double slide and is an octave lower than the tenor trombone. However, since the late 20th century, it has been mostly replaced by a single-slide bass-contrabass trombone in 12' F. This newer design uses two valves to cover the same range as the older contrabass trombone. Though the contrabass trombone is not a regular part of modern orchestras, it has been used more often in film and video game music in the 21st century.

Early trombones were often pitched in G, F, or E♭ below the tenor trombone. Modern bass trombones are usually pitched in the same B♭ as the tenor but have a larger bore, bigger bell, and larger mouthpiece. These features help produce lower notes. Modern bass trombones have valves that allow playing all notes down to the pedal register (B♭1). In Britain, a bass trombone in G was used in orchestras from the mid-1800s until the 1950s, especially in brass bands.

The tenor trombone has a fundamental note of B♭ and is usually treated as a non-transposing instrument. In the mid-1800s, tenor trombones with a fundamental note of C were also common in Britain and France. Trombones do not have crooks, valves, or keys to lower pitch, so players use seven slide positions to change notes. Each slide position increases the length of the air column, lowering the pitch. Moving the slide one position lowers the pitch by one semitone. This allows notes in the harmonic series to be lowered by up to a tritone. The lowest note on a standard tenor trombone is E♮, a tritone below B♭. Experienced players can also play lower "falset" and pedal notes, which have a metallic sound. Slide positions may need small adjustments to correct tuning issues, such as the fifth harmonic being slightly flat. Alternate slide positions are used to reduce movement during fast passages, like playing B♭3 in first or fifth position. Alternate positions also help create glissandos between notes on the same harmonic.

The lowest note of the tenor trombone (excluding pedal notes) is E2. The upper range has no theoretical limit, but it is often considered practical up to F5 or D5. The range of the C tenor trombone is from F♯2 to G5.

The alto trombone is smaller than the tenor and is usually pitched in E♭, a fourth higher than the tenor, though some are in F. Modern alto trombones may have a valve to lower the pitch by a semitone (called a "trill" valve) or by a fourth into B♭. The alto trombone was often used in church music from the 16th to 18th centuries to strengthen the alto voice in Masses. Composers like Beethoven, Brahms, and Schumann included it in their symphonies in the 19th century, but its use declined as tenor trombones became more common. It has seen a revival in the late 20th century.

The soprano trombone is usually pitched in B♭, an octave above the tenor. It was rarely used outside of church music after its first known appearance in 1677. It is similar in size to a B♭ trumpet and is often played by trumpet players. In the 20th century, some soprano trombones, called slide cornets, were made for jazz musicians like Louis Armstrong and Dizzy Gillespie. Modern jazz artists such as Wycliffe Gordon and Christian Scott, and classical trumpeter Torbjörn Hultmark, have also promoted its use, especially for teaching children.

The sopranino and piccolo trombones appeared in the 1950s as novelty instruments. They are even smaller and higher than the soprano trombone, pitched in high E♭ and B♭, one octave above the alto and soprano trombones. These instruments are similar to piccolo trumpets and are played by trumpet players.

In the 19th century, when valves were invented for brass instruments, trombones with valves replaced those with slides in orchestras. They are still used in some European regions and in military bands.

The cimbasso covers the same range as a tuba or contrabass trombone. The term "cimbasso" first appeared in Italian opera scores in the early 19th century and originally referred to a serpent or ophicleide. The modern cimbasso, called the "trombone basso Verdi" in the 1880s, has three to six valves and a cylindrical bore. It is usually pitched in 12' F, though models in E♭, 16' C, and 18' B♭ exist. The cimbasso is commonly used in late Romantic Italian operas by Verdi and Puccini and has also been used in film, television, and video games in the 21st century.

A hybrid trombone called a "duplex" or "double" trombone has both a slide and three valves. It was first made in the 19th century by Besson and later by Conn. Jazz trombonist Brad Gowans created a "valide trombone" in the 1940s with a short four-position slide. In the 1970s, Maynard Ferguson and Holton produced the "Superbone," similar to the earlier Conn model. In 2013, Schagerl and James Morrison introduced a larger bore version with rotary valves.

The "flugabone" (or "flugelbone") is a marching brass instrument shaped like a flugelhorn. It has the cylindrical bore of a trombone and is played like a valve trombone. A similar instrument is the "trombonium," first made by King Musical Instruments, which is wrapped and held vertically like a euphonium.

The term "sackbut" refers to early trombones used during the Renaissance and Baroque periods. These instruments had a smaller, more cylindrical bore and a less-flared bell.

A distinctive type of tenor trombone, called the buccin, was popular in France in the early 19th century. It had a tenor trombone slide and a bell shaped like a serpent or dragon. It sounded like a mix of a trombone and French horn, with a wide dynamic range but limited pitch range. Composer Hector Berlioz included the buccin in his Messe solennelle of 1824.

Technique

The modern system for a tenor trombone in B♭ has seven slide positions that allow the instrument to play all notes. This system was first described by Andre Braun around 1795.

In 1811, Joseph Fröhlich explained the differences between the modern system and an older system. The older system used four slide positions and typically tuned the trombone to A. A chart can help compare the two systems. For example, the first position in the older system was considered "drawn past" the modern first position. In the modern system, each slide position moves outward about 3 1/4 inches (8 cm) and produces a note one semitone lower when playing the same harmonic. Players can adjust the pitch slightly by tightening or loosening their lips, allowing them to compensate for small slide position errors.

Like all brass instruments, tightening the lips and increasing air pressure help players reach higher notes in the harmonic series. On a B♭ trombone, the first position (also called closed position) begins with the harmonic series: B♭2 (one octave above the lowest B♭1), F3 (a perfect fifth above B♭2), B♭3 (a perfect fourth above F3), D4 (a major third above B♭3), and F4 (a minor third above D4).

F4 is the sixth partial, or sixth overtone. Notes like A♭4 in first position are often slightly out of tune compared to the equal temperament scale. A♭4, which is the seventh partial, is usually about 31 cents flat (roughly one-third of a semitone). On a slide trombone, these tuning issues are corrected by adjusting the slide or using an alternate position. While Western music often uses equal temperament, Germany and Austria traditionally play these notes in position, achieving just intonation (see harmonic seventh for A♭4).

Higher partials, such as B♭4, C5, and D5, require little adjustment for equal temperament. However, E♭5 is about a quarter tone higher than expected. E♭5 and F5 are very high notes, playable only by highly skilled players with strong facial muscles and diaphragm control. These players can reach even higher notes like G5, A♭5, and B♭5.

As notes move higher in the harmonic series, the intervals between them become smaller. This means fewer slide movements are needed for higher notes. In the lower range, large slide movements are required, especially on lower-pitched trombones. For higher notes, only the first four slide positions are usually needed because the partials are closer together. For example, F4 (at the bottom of the treble clef) can be played in first, fourth, or sixth position on a B♭ trombone. The lowest note on a 9-foot B♭ tenor trombone is E1, requiring 7 feet 4 inches (2.24 meters) of tubing. Trombones without an F attachment have a gap between B♭1 (first position) and E2 (seventh position). Skilled players can produce weak "falset" notes between these, but they are rarely used in performances. Adding an F attachment allows clearer intermediate notes.

The B♭ pedal tone is common in commercial music but less so in symphonic music. Notes below B♭ are rarely used because they are hard to play and sound weak. Most tenor trombonists can reach as low as A♭ or G. The trombone's mostly cylindrical tubing makes producing pedal tones difficult. Instead, players use higher harmonics, which create a bright, hollow sound. Some modern compositions, like movie scores or solo works, may call for notes as low as pedal C, B, or double pedal B♭ on the bass trombone.

The trombone is one of the few wind instruments that can produce a true glissando by sliding the instrument without stopping the airflow. All pitches in a glissando must share the same harmonic number, and the largest interval for a glissando is a tritone.

Glissandos can create unique effects and are used in jazz and pop music, such as in the song "The Stripper" by David Rose. "Harmonic," "inverted," "broken," or "false" glissandos cross harmonic series and require simulated effects.

Trills are generally simple on instruments with valves but challenging on slide trombones. Trills are easiest higher in the harmonic series because the notes are closer together and require less slide movement. For example, a trill on B♭3/C4 is nearly impossible because the slide must move two positions, but at an octave higher (B♭4/C5), both notes can be played in first position as a lip trill. Trills are most common in Baroque and Classical music as ornamentation but appear in some modern compositions as well.

Unlike most brass instruments, the trombone is not a transposing instrument. Before valves were invented, brass instruments could only play one harmonic series at a time. Changing pitch required replacing tubing (called a "crook") or using a different instrument. Their parts were transposed based on the crook or instrument length. Trombones, however, have used slides since their invention, making them fully chromatic. No tradition of transposing parts developed, so trombone music is notated at concert pitch (except for one exception). Trombones were often used to double

Didactics

Many companies now sell compact B♭/C trombones designed for young children who struggle to reach the farthest slide positions on standard trombones. The main note of the trombone’s original length is C, but a short attachment that changes the instrument to B♭ has its valve open when the trigger is not pressed. These trombones do not have a seventh slide position, but players can reach the notes C and B natural on the first and second positions by using the trigger. A similar design, called the "Preacher model," was sold by C.G. Conn in the 1920s under the Wurlitzer label. Today, B♭/C trombones are made by many manufacturers, including German makers Günter Frost, Thein, and Helmut Voigt, as well as the Yamaha Corporation.

Manufacturers

Trombones with slide and valve designs have been produced by many musical instrument makers. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, important American companies that made trombones included Graves and Sons, E. G. Wright and Company, Boston Musical Instrument Company, E. A. Couturier, H. N. White Company/King Musical Instruments, J. W. York, and C.G. Conn. In the 21st century, main manufacturers of trombones are Bach, Conn, Courtois, Edwards, Getzen, Jupiter, King, Rath, Schilke, S.E. Shires, Thein, Wessex, Willson, and Yamaha.