The trombone is a musical instrument in the brass family. Like all brass instruments, sound is made when the player's lips vibrate inside a mouthpiece, causing the air inside the instrument to vibrate. Most trombones use a sliding tube to change the pitch instead of the valves found on other brass instruments. The valve trombone is an exception, using three valves like those on a trumpet. The superbone has both valves and a slide.

The word "trombone" comes from Italian words: "tromba" (trumpet) and "-one" (meaning "large"), so it means "large trumpet." The trombone has a mostly round shape inside, like the trumpet, unlike other brass instruments such as the cornet, flugelhorn, baritone, and euphonium, which have a more cone-like shape. The two most common types are the tenor trombone and the bass trombone. When the word "trombone" is used alone, it usually refers to the tenor model. These instruments are not transposing instruments, meaning they read music in the same key as it sounds. They are typically written in bass clef, with higher notes sometimes written in tenor clef. They are tuned to B♭, one octave below the B♭ trumpet and one octave above the B♭ contrabass tuba. The E♭ alto trombone was once common but became less popular as the tenor trombone's range improved. However, it is now becoming more popular again because of its lighter sound. In British brass-band music, the tenor trombone is treated as a B♭ transposing instrument, written in treble clef, while the alto trombone is written in concert pitch, usually in alto clef.

A person who plays the trombone is called a trombonist or trombone player.

History

The word "trombone" comes from the Italian word "tromba" (meaning "trumpet") and the suffix "-one" (meaning "large"), which together mean "large trumpet."

During the Renaissance, the English name for the trombone was "sackbut." The first record of the word "shakbusshe" was in court documents from 1495. "Shakbusshe" is similar to "sacabuche," a term used in Spain as early as 1478. The French version, "saqueboute," appeared in 1466.

In Germany, the instrument was called "Posaune" long before the slide was invented. This name could refer to a natural trumpet as late as the early 1500s.

The sackbut appeared in the 1400s and was widely used across Europe. Its use declined by the mid to late 1600s. It was played at outdoor events, concerts, and religious ceremonies. Its main role was to play the contratenor part in dance bands. It was also used with shawms in bands supported by towns and courts. Trumpeters and trombonists in German city-states were hired to stand watch in city towers and announce the arrival of important people, showing the city's wealth and strength. These trombonists were often separate from those who played in groups like the alta capella wind ensembles and the first orchestral ensembles, which performed in religious places such as St. Mark's Basilica in Venice in the early 1600s. The 17th-century trombone was slightly smaller than the modern version, with a bell that was more cone-shaped and less flared. Today, performers use the term "sackbut" to describe the older version of the trombone.

Composers who wrote music for the trombone during this time included Claudio Monteverdi, Heinrich Schütz, Giovanni Gabrieli, and his uncle Andrea Gabrieli. The trombone was used to play parts that matched voices in sacred music, and there are also solo pieces written for the trombone in the early 1600s.

When the sackbut became popular again in England during the 1700s, Italian music had such a strong influence that the instrument was called by its Italian name, "trombone." The name "trombone" remained in Italy and Germany, where it was also called "Posaune."

During the later Baroque period, Johann Sebastian Bach and George Frideric Handel used trombones in some of their works. Bach used a tromba di tirarsi, which might have been a type of slide trumpet, to match the cantus firmus in some religious cantatas. He also used four trombones to match the chorus in three of his cantatas (BWV 2, BWV 21, and BWV 38). Because trombones were not common, their solo parts were often played by other instruments.

The trombone’s design changed little between the Baroque and Classical periods, but the bell became slightly more flared. Christoph Willibald Gluck was the first major composer to use the trombone in an opera overture, in his opera Alceste (1767). He also used it in Orfeo ed Euridice, Iphigénie en Tauride (1779), and Echo et Narcisse.

Early Classical composers sometimes included movements with the alto trombone as a solo instrument in divertimenti and serenades. These movements are often performed separately as standalone concertos. Examples include Leopold Mozart’s Serenade in E♭ (1755) and Michael Haydn’s Divertimento in D major (1764). The earliest known independent trombone concerto is probably Johann Georg Albrechtsberger’s Concerto for Alto Trombone and Strings in B♭ (1769).

Mozart used the trombone in operas, such as in scenes with the Commendatore in Don Giovanni, and in sacred music. The solo part in the Tuba Mirum section of his Requiem became a standard piece for auditions. Mozart’s orchestras usually included a trio of alto, tenor, and bass trombones, which matched the voices in the choir. The earliest known symphony with a trombone section is Symphony in C minor by Anton Zimmermann. The date is uncertain, but it is likely from the 1770s. The earliest confirmed use of the trombone in a symphony was in 1781, the year Zimmermann died.

The Symphony in E♭ (1807) by Swedish composer Joachim Nicolas Eggert includes an independent trombone part. Ludwig van Beethoven is sometimes mistakenly credited with introducing the trombone to the orchestra, as he used it later in his Symphony No. 5 in C minor (1808), Symphony No. 6 in F major ("Pastoral"), and Symphony No. 9 ("Choral").

Trombones were used in operas, symphonies, and other works by composers such as Felix Mendelssohn, Ludwig van Beethoven, Hector Berlioz, Franz Berwald, Charles Gounod, Franz Liszt, Gioacchino Rossini, Franz Schubert, Robert Schumann, Giuseppe Verdi, and Richard Wagner.

During the Renaissance and early Baroque periods, trombone trios were often played with one or two cornetts. Later, cornetts were replaced by oboes and clarinets, but the trombone still supported the alto, tenor, and bass voices in choirs. As trombones became part of orchestras, they were more

Construction

The trombone is a musical instrument made mostly of a long, round tube with two U-shaped bends and a wide bell at the end. The tube is mostly round but has parts that narrow slightly, which affects how the instrument sounds. Like other brass instruments, sound is made by blowing air through closed lips, which creates vibrations that form a standing wave inside the instrument.

The trombone has a removable cup-shaped mouthpiece that is similar to the baritone horn and closely related to the trumpet's mouthpiece. This mouthpiece has a narrow part called a venturi, which increases resistance and changes the instrument's tone. The slide section includes a leadpipe, inner and outer slide tubes, and supports called "stays." Modern trombones use soldered stays instead of loose stays found on older instruments called sackbuts.

The most unique part of the trombone is the slide, which changes the length of the tube and lowers the pitch. During the Renaissance, people added "stockings" to the inner slide tubes to reduce friction and help the slide move smoothly. Modern trombones have slightly wider ends on the inner slides to achieve the same result. The slide must be lubricated often. The slide is connected to the bell section by a neckpipe and a U-shaped bend called the bell or back bow. A threaded collar holds the slide and bell together. Before the early 20th century, this connection relied only on friction.

Trombones often have a short tuning slide in the U-shaped bend between the neckpipe and the bell. This feature was designed by a French maker named François Riedlocker in the early 19th century. It was later used in French, British, German, and American trombones, though German models sometimes lacked tuning slides until the 20th century. The tuning slide must be cylindrical, but it is placed in a section of the tube that is slightly cone-shaped. In the early to mid-20th century, some manufacturers tried placing the tuning slide in the main slide to allow the bell to have a smooth cone shape. This design was not widely used because it added weight and was hard to align. Some makers have recently revived this idea with better materials.

Many trombones have one or more rotary valves connected to extra tubing, which extends the instrument's lower range and allows for alternate slide positions when playing notes. Like the trumpet, the trombone is considered a cylindrical bore instrument because it has long sections of tubing with unchanging diameter. Tenor trombones typically have a bore size of 0.450 inches (11.4 mm) to 0.547 inches (13.9 mm) after the leadpipe and through the slide. The bore increases slightly from the slide to the bell, which is usually between 7 and 8.5 inches (18–22 cm) in diameter.

Trombone bells (and sometimes slides) can be made from different types of brass. The most common material is yellow brass (70% copper, 30% zinc), but other options include rose brass (85% copper, 15% zinc) and red brass (90% copper, 10% zinc). Some manufacturers offer interchangeable bells. Tenor trombone bells are usually 7 to 9 inches (18–23 cm) in diameter, with most between 7.5 and 8.5 inches (19–22 cm). Jazz trombones and older models often have smaller bells, while orchestral models have larger ones. Bass trombone bells can be 10.5 inches (27 cm) or more, with most between 9.5 and 10 inches (24–25 cm). Bells are made from two brass sheets or a single piece of metal shaped on a mandrel. Some bells have a wire edge to secure them, which affects the sound. Occasionally, bells are made from sterling silver.

Modern trombones often have a valve attachment, an extra loop of tubing connected to the bell section and controlled by a valve operated by the left thumb. This attachment helps lower the instrument's pitch and allows for alternate slide positions. The valve attachment was first developed by a German maker named Christian Friedrich Sattler in the 1830s for a type of trombone called the Tenorbaßposaune. Sattler's design added about 3 feet (0.9 m) of tubing to lower the pitch from B♭ to F, and it is still used in modern instruments.

Valve attachments are most common on tenor and bass trombones but can also appear on smaller or larger models. The most common type of valve is the rotary valve, used on many band instruments and student trombones. Since the mid-20th century, new valve designs have been created to improve sound quality. Professional models often use the Thayer axial flow valve, while European manufacturers may use the Hagmann valve.

Some trombones use three piston or rotary valves instead of a slide, as seen on valve trombones. F attachment tubing usually has a larger bore than the rest of the instrument. For example, an orchestral tenor trombone has a slide bore of 0.547 inches (13.9 mm), while the F attachment bore is 0.562 inches (14.3 mm). The F attachment also includes a tuning slide to adjust the pitch separately. This slide is long enough to lower the pitch by a semitone when fully extended.

F attachment tubing is often coiled tightly to fit inside the bell section (closed wrap) or shaped in a single loop (open wrap). Open wrap designs became popular in the 1980s after an instrument technician named Larry Minick introduced them. Open wrap tubing allows for a freer sound but is more likely to be damaged in marching bands, where closed wrap is more common.

Some trombones use a tuning mechanism in the slide section instead of a tuning slide in the bell section. Placing the tuning slide in the bell section requires two cylindrical sections in a conical part of the instrument, which affects the tone. Moving the tuning mechanism to the cylindrical slide section keeps the bell section conical, preserving the instrument's sound quality.

Types

Today, the most common trombones are the tenor and bass trombones. Like other instrument families, such as the clarinet, trombones have been made in many sizes, from very small (piccolo) to very large (contrabass). Most trombones use a slide to change the pitch, but some, called valve trombones, use three valves, similar to other brass instruments.

The contrabass trombone is the lowest type of trombone. It first appeared in the 1870s when composer Richard Wagner asked for one to use in his opera Der Ring des Nibelungen. However, since the late 20th century, a newer design has replaced it. This newer trombone has a single slide and valves, and it is pitched in 12' F. It can play the same range as the older contrabass trombone but is easier to handle. Though the contrabass trombone is not a regular part of modern orchestras, it has been used more in film and video game music in the 21st century.

Early trombones were often pitched in G, F, or E♭, but modern bass trombones are usually pitched in B♭, like the tenor trombone. They have a larger bore (tube), bigger bell, and larger mouthpiece, which help them play lower notes. Modern bass trombones use valves to play all notes, even very low ones called pedal notes (B♭1). In Britain, a type of bass trombone in G was used in orchestras from the mid-1800s until the 1950s, especially in brass bands.

The tenor trombone is usually pitched in B♭ and is not a transposing instrument, meaning it plays the same notes as written. In the mid-1800s, some tenor trombones were pitched in C, especially in Britain and France. Trombones do not use crooks, valves, or keys to lower the pitch, so players use seven slide positions to change notes. Each slide position increases the length of the air column, lowering the pitch by one semitone. This allows the tenor trombone to play notes as low as E (a tritone below B♭). Experienced players can also play even lower notes called "falset" and "pedal" notes. Slide positions may need small adjustments to fix tuning issues, such as the fifth harmonic being slightly flat. Players often use alternate slide positions to make fast passages easier, such as playing B♭3 in first or fifth position. Alternate positions also help create smooth glissandos between notes.

The lowest note of the tenor trombone (excluding pedal notes) is E2, and its upper range has no theoretical limit. The practical top is sometimes considered F5 or D5. The range of the C tenor trombone is from F♯2 to G5.

The alto trombone is smaller than the tenor and is usually pitched in E♭, a fourth higher than the tenor. Some are pitched in F. Modern alto trombones sometimes have a valve to lower the pitch by a semitone (called a "trill" valve) or by a fourth (to B♭). The alto trombone was often used in church music from the 16th to 18th centuries to support the alto voice in Masses. Composers like Beethoven, Brahms, and Schumann wrote for it in the 19th century, but its use declined until a revival in the late 20th century.

The soprano trombone is pitched in B♭, an octave above the tenor. It was rarely used outside of church music until the 20th century. It has a similar size to a B♭ trumpet and is often played by trumpet players. In the 20th century, some soprano trombones were made as novelties or for jazz players like Louis Armstrong and Dizzy Gillespie. Today, jazz artists such as Wycliffe Gordon and Christian Scott, and classical trumpeter Torbjörn Hultmark, support its use for young learners.

The sopranino and piccolo trombones appeared in the 1950s as novelty instruments. They are even smaller than the soprano trombone and are pitched in high E♭ and B♭, one octave above the alto and soprano trombones. These instruments are similar to piccolo trumpets and are mostly played by trumpet players.

In the 19th century, after valves were invented for brass instruments, trombones with valves replaced slide trombones in orchestras. They remain popular in some European regions and in military bands.

The cimbasso covers the same range as a tuba or contrabass trombone. The term "cimbasso" first appeared in Italian opera scores in the early 19th century and originally referred to other instruments. The modern cimbasso, called the "trombone basso Verdi," was developed in the 1880s. It has three to six valves and a cylindrical bore. It is most often pitched in 12' F, though models in E♭, 16' C, and 18' B♭ exist. The cimbasso is used in late Romantic Italian operas by Verdi and Puccini and has also been used in film, television, and video games in the 21st century.

A hybrid trombone called a "duplex" or "double" trombone has both a slide and three valves. It was first made in the 19th century by Besson and later by Conn. Jazz trombonist Brad Gowans created a version with a short four-position slide in the 1940s. In the 1970s, Maynard Ferguson and Holton produced the "Superbone," similar to the Conn model. In 2013, Schagerl and James Morrison created a larger bore version with rotary valves.

The "flugabone" (or "marching trombone") is a brass instrument shaped like a flugelhorn. It has the cylindrical bore of a trombone, not the conical bore of a flugelhorn or bugle, and plays like a valve trombone. A similar instrument is the "trombonium," made by King Musical Instruments and shaped like a euphonium.

The term "sackbut" refers to early trombones used in the Renaissance and Baroque eras. These had a smaller, more cylindrical bore and a less-flared bell compared to modern trombones.

Technique

The modern system on a tenor trombone in B♭ has seven chromatic slide positions. This system was first described by Andre Braun around 1795.

In 1811, Joseph Fröhlich explained the differences between the modern system and an older system. The older system used four diatonic slide positions, and the trombone was usually tuned to A. A chart can help compare the two systems. For example, the first position in the old system was considered "drawn past" compared to the modern first position. In the modern system, each slide position moved outward by about 3 + 1⁄4 inches (8 cm) produces a note one semitone lower when played in the same harmonic partial. Players can adjust the pitch slightly by tightening or loosening their lips, allowing them to "bend" a note up or down without changing slide positions.

Like all brass instruments, players can change the pitch by tightening their lips and increasing air pressure, which moves them to different notes in the harmonic series. On a B♭ trombone, the first position (also called closed position) begins with B♭2 (one octave above the pedal B♭1), F3 (a perfect fifth higher), B♭3 (a perfect fourth higher), D4 (a major third higher), and F4 (a minor third higher).

F4 is the sixth partial, or the fifth overtone. Notes on the next partial, such as A♭4 (a minor third higher) in first position, are often slightly out of tune compared to the standard twelve-tone equal temperament scale. A♭4, which is the seventh partial (sixth overtone), is usually about 31 cents flat (roughly one-third of a semitone) compared to the minor seventh. On a slide trombone, these tuning issues are corrected by adjusting the slide or using an alternate position. While most Western music uses the equal-tempered scale, Germany and Austria often use just intonation for these notes.

Higher partials, such as B♭4 (a major second higher), C5 (a major second higher), and D5 (a major second higher), require little adjustment for equal-tempered intonation. However, E♭5 (a minor second higher) is about a quarter tone higher than in equal temperament. E♭5 and F5 (a major second higher) are very high notes. Skilled players with strong facial muscles and diaphragm control can play even higher notes, such as G5, A♭5, B♭5, and beyond.

As notes move higher in the harmonic series, the intervals between them become smaller. This means fewer slide movements are needed for higher notes. In the lower range, large slide movements are required, especially on lower-pitched trombones. For higher notes, players often use only the first four slide positions because the partials are closer together. For example, F4 (at the bottom of the treble clef) can be played in first, fourth, or sixth position on a B♭ trombone. The lowest note on a 9-foot (2.7 m) B♭ tenor trombone is E1 (the lowest E on a standard piano keyboard), which requires 7 feet 4 inches (2.24 m) of tubing. Trombones without an F attachment have a gap between B♭1 (the fundamental in first position) and E2 (the first harmonic in seventh position). Skilled players can produce "falset" notes between these, but they are weak and rarely used in performances. Adding an F attachment allows for clearer intermediate notes.

The B♭ pedal tone is often used in commercial music but less in symphonic music. Notes below B♭1 are rarely played because they are difficult to produce and sound weak. Most tenor trombonists can only reach as low as A♭ or G. The trombone’s cylindrical tubing makes it hard to play the fundamental as a pedal tone. Instead, players use higher harmonics, which produce a bright and hollow sound. Some modern orchestral, film, or solo works may call for notes as low as pedal C, B, or even double pedal B♭ on the bass trombone.

The trombone is one of the few wind instruments that can produce a true glissando by sliding the trombone without stopping the airflow. All pitches in a glissando must share the same harmonic number, and the largest interval for a glissando is a tritone.

A glissando can create unique effects and is used in jazz and popular music, such as in the song "The Stripper" by David Rose. Other types of glissandos, like "harmonic," "inverted," "broken," or "false" glissandos, cross multiple harmonic series and require simulated effects.

Trills, which are quick alternations between two notes, are easier on instruments with valves but difficult on slide trombones. Trills are easiest higher in the harmonic series because the notes are closer together and require less slide movement. For example, a trill on B♭3/C4 is nearly impossible because the slide must move two positions, but a trill on B♭4/C5 can be played in first position as a lip trill. Trills are most common in Baroque and Classical music for ornamentation but may appear in modern compositions as well.

Unlike most brass instruments, the trombone is not a transposing instrument. Before valves were invented, brass instruments could only play one harmonic series at a time, requiring changes in tubing length (called "crooks") to alter pitch. Their music was transposed based on the crook used. Trombones, however, have used slides since their invention, making them fully chromatic. As a result, trombone music has always been written in concert pitch (with one exception). Trombones were also often used to double choir parts, so reading in concert pitch avoided the need for separate parts. While the fundamental pitch (slide fully retracted) has remained consistent, the conceptual pitch of trombones has changed over time (e.g., Baroque A tenor = modern B♭ tenor).

Trombone music is usually written in bass clef, though sometimes in tenor or alto clef. Alto clef is typically used for first trombone parts in orchestras, while second trombone parts use tenor clef and third trombone parts use bass clef. As the alto trombone declined in popularity

Didactics

Several companies now sell smaller B♭/C trombones that are especially good for young children who are learning to play the trombone and cannot reach the farthest slide positions on regular-sized instruments. The basic note of the trombone's main part is C, but a short attachment that changes the instrument to B♭ keeps the valve open when the trigger is not pressed. These trombones do not have a seventh slide position, but the notes C and B natural can be easily reached on the first and second positions when the trigger is used. A similar design, called the "Preacher model," was sold by C.G. Conn in the 1920s under the Wurlitzer brand. Today, B♭/C trombones are offered by many makers, including German companies like Günter Frost, Thein, and Helmut Voigt, as well as the Yamaha Corporation.

Manufacturers

Trombones with slide and valve parts have been made by many musical instrument companies. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, well-known American makers included Graves and Sons, E. G. Wright and Company, Boston Musical Instrument Company, E. A. Couturier, H. N. White Company/King Musical Instruments, J. W. York, and C.G. Conn. In the 21st century, major manufacturers of trombones are Bach, Conn, Courtois, Edwards, Getzen, Jupiter, King, Rath, Schilke, S.E. Shires, Thein, Wessex, Willson, and Yamaha.