Prehistoric music, also known as primitive music, is a term used in music history to describe all music made by cultures without written language during prehistory, which began in the very late geological past. Prehistoric music was followed by ancient music in different parts of the world, but it still exists in some remote areas today. However, it is more common to refer to the "prehistoric" music that continues today as folk, indigenous, or traditional music. Prehistoric music is studied along with other music periods in the field of music archaeology.

Archaeological findings from Paleolithic sites show that early humans used carving and piercing tools to make musical instruments. Archaeologists have discovered Paleolithic flutes made from bones with holes on the sides. The Divje Babe flute, a bone from a cave bear with holes, is at least 40,000 years old. Instruments like the seven-holed flute and stringed instruments, such as the Ravanahatha, have been found at archaeological sites from the Indus Valley civilization.

Origins of prehistoric instruments

Many languages have words for music that are connected to dance, religion, or spiritual practices. Scientists study and debate how prehistoric music was used, as the sounds from ancient music might have been different depending on the environment where it was played. Some cultures use sounds that copy natural noises in their music, which is often linked to spiritual practices. This type of music can also be used for fun or practical tasks, such as helping with hunting.

It is likely that the first musical instrument was the human voice, which can create many different sounds, including singing, humming, whistling, clicking, coughing, and yawning. A Neanderthal hyoid bone, which is similar to the one found in modern humans, is 60,000 years old. This is older than the oldest known Paleolithic bone flute by about 20,000 years. However, music may have started even earlier than this.

Research suggests that music may have begun when early humans started using stone tools. The sounds made during tasks, like pounding seeds or roots, could have created early rhythms. The first rhythm-making tools likely included clapping hands, hitting stones together, or using other objects to make beats. Bone flutes and pipes from the Paleolithic era have been found. Other items, such as pierced bones (possibly used as whistles), bullroarers, and rasps, have also been discovered. These items date back to the Paleolithic era, though some archaeological finds are unclear and could be seen as tools or musical instruments.

Another possible origin of music is "motherese," the way mothers and babies communicate. This involves sounds, rhythms, and movements, and it shares similarities with music.

Geoffrey Miller suggests that music and dancing may have helped people show their fitness for finding a mate. He believes that activities requiring energy, like music and dancing, demonstrate physical and mental strength. Similar behaviors are seen in some bird species, such as magpies and white-browed sparrow-weavers, which sing together in groups.

Archaeoacoustic methodology

Archaeoacoustics is a field that uses sound-related methods to study ancient sounds, sound environments, and musical tools. Researchers examine natural features like ringing rocks and lithophones, as well as the acoustics of places used for rituals, such as chamber tombs and stone circles. They also test how prehistoric instruments might have sounded using sound analysis. This work includes field tests to record and study how sound behaves in archaeological locations, tests to analyze the sound produced by lithophones, and recreations of ancient sound environments as part of experimental archaeology.

Africa

In ancient Egypt, music and chanting were often used in magic and religious ceremonies. The ancient Egyptians believed the goddess Bat was the first to create music. Over time, the worship of Bat was combined with the worship of Hathor, as both goddesses were shown as cows. It was thought that Hathor’s music helped Osiris teach people how to live in an organized way. Another goddess, Bastet, who was shown as a lion, was also linked to music. During this time, music was used mainly to create rhythm, and rhythms were simple. Small shells were used as whistles. In the early history of Egypt, songs and chants were important in religious practices and were often played with clappers or a flute. Even though some evidence is missing, experts believe that instruments like the end-blown flute were developed during the Old Kingdom period.

In 1969, a piece of a bone flute, about 90,000 to 115,000 years old, was found in a cave in Libya. The bone has one hole that was made by humans, similar to flutes found in Europe and the Mediterranean. Scientists do not know the exact type of bird the bone came from, but it likely belonged to a large bird.

In Southern Africa, including parts of South Africa, Zimbabwe, and Zambia, people made instruments using bone, clay, and metal. These included idiophones, which make sound when struck, and aerophones, which use air to create sound. In Southern and Western Cape areas of South Africa, spinning disks, bone tubes, and a bullroarer were found. These items are dated to between about 2,500 and 2,600 years ago and up to the year 1732 AD. Many bone tubes were also discovered in the Matjes River and may have been used as flutes, trumpets, whistles, bells, or parts of mbira instruments. In Zimbabwe, numerous mbira keys were found, dating back to about 210 years ago during the Later Iron Age.

Asia

In 1986, several bone flutes were discovered in Jiahu, Henan Province, China. These flutes date back to about 7000 BCE. Each flute has between six and nine holes and was made from the hollow bones of the red-crowned crane. When found, one of the flutes was still playable. This flute could produce music using either the five- or seven-note Xia Zhi scale or the six-note Qing Shang scale from the ancient Chinese musical system.

Ancient texts called the Vedas mention Indian classical music, known as marga. Archaeological sites from the Indus Valley Civilization have uncovered instruments such as seven-holed flutes and various stringed instruments.

In Palestine, prehistoric bones were used as aerophones, which are instruments that make sound when air is blown through them. These bones were found at Eynan-Mallaha and date back to 10,730 and 9760 cal BC. Smaller bird bones were preferred over larger ones because they created different sounds, even though they were harder to play. The tones produced by these flutes are believed to copy the calls of certain birds. These flutes were likely used for music and dance rather than hunting, as they could only mimic a limited range of bird calls. Birds often inspired music, such as the Sun Dance of the Plains Indians, where dancers used whistles to mimic eagles, or the Kaluli people, who wore feathers from rainforest birds as decorations.

In southern Vietnam, two deer antlers were found at the Go O Chua site and used as stringed instruments. These antlers are at least 2,000 years old, with one discovered in 1997 and the other in 2008. Each antler had a single string attached to both ends, with the bony part of the antler forming a bridge. This instrument is similar to a Đàn brố or a K'ni. These are the first stringed instruments discovered archaeologically in Vietnam.

Several lithophones, which are stone instruments, were also found across the country. These would have been placed on strings attached to wooden or bamboo frames and struck to make sounds.

Australia

Australian Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander music includes the music of Aboriginal Australians and Torres Strait Islanders. Music has been an important part of their social, cultural, and ceremonial events for thousands of years, from the earliest times to today. It has existed for about 40,000 years. Traditional music includes many unique performance styles and instruments specific to certain regions or groups. Some musical traditions are shared across much of Australia and even in other areas. The culture of Torres Strait Islanders is connected to parts of New Guinea, so their music is also related. Music plays a key role in preserving the culture of Indigenous Australians.

A didgeridoo is a musical instrument classified as an aerophone in Western music systems. It is one of the oldest known instruments. It is a long tube without finger holes, and the player blows into it. Sometimes, it has a mouthpiece made of beeswax. Traditionally, it is made from eucalyptus wood, but modern materials like PVC pipes are also used. In traditional settings, only men play it, usually to accompany singing during ceremonies or for fun. Skilled players use a technique called circular breathing to create continuous sound and produce multiple harmonic tones. Historically, the didgeridoo was used mainly by Aboriginal groups in the northernmost areas of Australia.

A clapstick is a percussion instrument, different from drumsticks, which are used to hit drums. Clapsticks are oval-shaped and often painted with images of animals like snakes, lizards, and birds. They are used by striking one stick against another or against a person’s hands.

It is used as a hand-held free reed instrument.

A bullroarer is made of a thin, rectangular wooden slat about 15 cm to 60 cm long and 1.25 cm to 5 cm wide, attached to a long cord. The edges of the wood are often sharpened, and some cultures add notches along the slat. The cord is twisted slightly and then swung in a large circle in a horizontal plane or a smaller circle in a vertical plane. The bullroarer continues to spin on its own axis after the twist is released. The cord winds in one direction and then the other, alternating.

The bullroarer makes a loud, vibrating sound with changes in pitch and tone. The sound can be adjusted by changing how wide the circle is, how fast it is swung, or whether it is moved in a horizontal or vertical plane. This allows for different sounds to be made, which can carry messages. The low-frequency part of the sound can be heard over long distances, even many miles away on a quiet night.

Bullroarers have also been used in ancient Greece, Britain, Ireland, Scandinavia, Mali, New Zealand, and the Americas. Banks Island Eskimos used bullroarers as recently as 1963. An example includes a 59-year-old woman named Susie who used one to scare off polar bears. Aleut, Eskimo, and Inuit people sometimes used bullroarers as toys or musical instruments but preferred drums and rattles more often.

Europe

Clay bells were found in Austria and Hungary. They are from the early Neolithic period. One bell was discovered at the Starčevo site in Gellénháza, Hungary. Another was found at the Brunn site near Vienna. The Brunn site was excavated in 1999. These bells do not have a clapper. They were tied with string and likely struck with wooden sticks or animal bones. Both bells were recreated and played, but they were not loud enough to be used as musical instruments. This may explain why they were destroyed and thrown away.

A unique Seashell Horn from the Upper Paleolithic era was found in the Marsoulas cave in 1931. It is made of a Charonia lampus shell. The horn is from the early Magdalenian period. It was changed to be used as a wind instrument by blowing air through the mouthpiece at the top. Engravings are on the inside of the lip. The meaning of the engravings is unknown, but they were made intentionally.

In 2008, archaeologists found a bone flute in the Hohle Fels cave near Ulm, Germany. The flute has five holes and a V-shaped mouthpiece. It is made from a vulture wing bone. Researchers published their findings in the journal Nature in 2009. This flute is one of several similar instruments found in the area. These instruments are about 42,000 years old. They are the oldest confirmed musical instruments ever found. The Hohle Fels flute was found near the Venus of Hohle Fels and close to the oldest known human carving. Scientists believe these finds show that early humans had a musical tradition when they first moved into Europe. They also think the flute might help explain why early humans survived while Neanderthals did not.

Two marble statues from the late Neolithic Early Cycladic culture (2900–2000 BCE) were discovered on the island of Keros in the 19th century. They were found in a single grave. One statue shows a standing person playing a double flute. The other shows a seated person playing a triangular lyre or harp. The harpist is about 23 cm (9 in) tall and dates to 2700–2500 BCE. The figure appears focused and shows strong emotions, with its head tilted upward. The meaning of these statues and others is unknown. They may have been used for religious purposes, to protect against evil spirits, as toys, or to represent people from myths.

The oldest known wooden pipes were found in Wicklow, Ireland, in 2003. They are about 2167±30 BCE old. A pit lined with wood contained six flutes made from yew. Each flute is 30 to 50 cm (12 to 20 in) long and tapers at one end. They do not have finger holes. The flutes may have been tied together.

Clay egg-shaped rattles, bottle-shaped rattles, and pan pipes made of bone were found in Slovakia. They are from 300–800 AD, during the Migration Period. Music culture in Slovakia did not develop until the 9th century. These instruments are older, from the 4th to 6th century AD. They are not connected to Slovak culture but show that music existed in this region at that time. They may have been used in ceremonies, rituals, or dances to protect against evil spirits or to call on gods for help.

The oldest flute ever found may be the Divje Babe flute. It was discovered in Slovenia in 1995. It is a piece of a young cave bear’s femur and is about 43,000 years old. However, some scientists believe it is not a musical instrument but a bone chewed by an animal. In 2012, flutes found earlier in the Geißenklösterle cave were tested again. They are 42,000 to 43,000 years old.

The Americas

For thousands of years, Canada has been home to Indigenous Peoples from many different cultures and major language groups. Each Indigenous community had (and still has) its own special musical traditions. Chanting and singing are common practices, and many performers also use various musical instruments. Before Europeans arrived in the New World, Indigenous Peoples used materials they found nearby to make their instruments. They turned gourds and animal horns into rattles, which were carved and painted in beautiful designs. In woodland areas, they created birchbark horns and drumsticks from carved antlers and wood. Drums were usually made from carved wood and animal hides. These instruments help set the rhythm for songs and dances.