The clave (pronounced /ˈklɑːveɪ, kleɪv/; Spanish: [ˈklaβe]) is a rhythmic pattern used to organize time in Cuban music. In Spanish, the word "clave" means key, clef, code, or keystone. It is found in many music styles, including Abakuá music, rumba, conga, son, mambo, salsa, songo, timba, and Afro-Cuban jazz. The five-stroke clave pattern is the central part of many Cuban rhythms. The study of rhythmic methods, especially in Afro-Cuban music, and how these methods affect the mood of a piece is called clave theory.

The clave pattern began in sub-Saharan African music traditions, where it has the same purpose as in Cuba. In the study of music from different cultures, clave is also called a key pattern, guide pattern, phrasing referent, timeline, or asymmetrical timeline. The clave pattern is also used in music from the African diaspora, such as Haitian Vodou drumming, Afro-Brazilian music, African-American music, Louisiana Voodoo drumming, and Afro-Uruguayan music (candombe). In the United States, the clave pattern is sometimes called "hambone." It is used in North American popular music as a rhythmic motif or as a way to decorate rhythms.

The history of the clave is connected to musical exchanges among people in the African diaspora. For example, the African "bomba" rhythm influenced the clave. Also, the important role of drums in rhythmic patterns shows these shared cultural roots.

The clave is the foundation of reggae, reggaeton, and dancehall. In these genres, it acts as the "heartbeat" that supports their basic structure. These rhythms and sounds show a shared cultural experience and knowledge of these roots. This reflects the exchange of music across countries.

When considering the clave as a basis for cultural understanding and connection, it shows how different communities are linked through music. This blending of musical styles creates the flow and essential "heartbeat" of many music genres.

Etymology

The Spanish word "clave" means "code," "key," or "keystone." A keystone is a wedge-shaped stone that holds the other stones together in the center of an arch. The rhythm associated with "clave" is also the reason for the name of the Afro-Cuban musical instrument called claves. This instrument is made up of two hardwood sticks.

The key to Afro-Cuban rhythm

The clave pattern keeps the rhythm steady in Afro-Cuban music. Two main clave patterns are used in Afro-Cuban music: son clave and rumba clave. These patterns are also used as bell patterns in many parts of Africa. Son clave and rumba clave can be played in a triple-pulse structure (8 or 8) or a duple-pulse structure (4, 4, or 2). In modern Cuban music, the duple-pulse clave is written in one measure of 4. In music studies about African music, the duple-pulse clave is also written in one measure.

Although the 8 and 4 versions of each clave divide beats differently, they share the same pulse names. The relationship between triple-pulse and duple-pulse clave patterns, as well as other rhythms, is an important part of sub-Saharan African-based rhythms. Every triple-pulse pattern has a matching duple-pulse version.

Son clave has beats on 1, 1a, 2&, 3&, and 4. Rumba clave has beats on 1, 1a, 2a, 3&, and 4. Both clave patterns are used in rumba. What is now called son clave (also called Havana clave) was once the main pattern played in Havana-style yambú and guaguancó. Some Havana-based rumba groups still use son clave for yambú. The music style called son likely took the clave pattern from rumba when it moved from eastern Cuba to Havana in the early 1900s.

Clave theory

There are three main parts of what is known as clave theory.

The first part includes ideas and terms developed in Cuban popular music between the mid-1800s and mid-1900s. In Popular Cuban Music, Emilio Grenet explains how the duple-pulse clave pattern helps guide all musicians in an ensemble. A key idea from Cuba is that the clave acts as a musical section divided into two parts. The first part is active and moving, while the second part is stable and grounded.

The second part comes from studies of sub-Saharan African rhythms. In 1959, Arthur Morris Jones wrote Studies in African Music, where he showed that the triple-pulse clave pattern is a guide for many African musical pieces. An important idea from these studies is that the clave matrix is created by cross-rhythms, which are overlapping rhythms.

The third part comes from the United States. A major North American contribution is the spread of the 3–2/2–3 concept and terms, which developed from blending Cuban rhythms with jazz in New York City.

Only in the past few decades have the three parts of clave theory started to combine their similar and different ideas. Because of the popularity of Cuban music and the many educational resources now available, many musicians today understand the basics of clave. Modern books about clave share a common understanding of its meaning.

In recent years, clave has also been studied mathematically. Its structure can be explained using cross-rhythmic ratios, especially the 3:2 ratio. Godfried Toussaint, a computer science professor, has written books and papers about the math behind clave and related African bell patterns. He uses geometry and the Euclidean algorithm to explore clave’s significance.

Types

The most common clave pattern in Cuban popular music is called the son clave, named after the Cuban musical style of the same name. A clave is the basic rhythm, made up of two parts: one called the antecedent and the other called the consequent. In Cuban music, clave was originally written in two measures of 4. When written this way, each part of the clave is shown in one measure.

The antecedent part has three beats and is called the three-side of the clave. The consequent part (in the second measure) has two beats and is called the two-side.

In Cuban popular music, the first three beats of the son clave are also called tresillo, a Spanish word meaning "triplet," which refers to three nearly equal beats played in the same time as two main beats. However, in Cuban music, the term tresillo refers to the specific rhythm shown in the pattern.

Another main clave pattern is the rumba clave. This pattern is the key rhythm used in Cuban rumba. The triple-pulse form of the rumba clave in Cuba can be traced back to the iron bell (ekón) part in abakuá music. The form of rumba called columbia is connected to abakuá, an Afro-Cuban cabildo that originated from the Kalabari of Cameroon. Columbia also uses this pattern. Sometimes, eight beats of the rumba clave are clapped in the accompaniment of Cuban batá drums. The four-beat form of the rumba clave is used in yambú, guaguancó, and popular music.

There is some debate about how to write the four-beat rumba clave for guaguancó and yambú. In practice, the third beat on the three-side and the first beat on the two-side often fall in rhythmic positions that are hard to write clearly. Triple-pulse beats can sometimes be used instead of two-beat pulses. Also, the clave beats are sometimes played in ways that do not fit neatly into standard rhythmic patterns. This allows for many variations.

The first regular use of the rumba clave in Cuban popular music began with the mozambique, created by Pello el Afrikan in the early 1960s. When used in popular music (such as songo, timba, or Latin jazz), the rumba clave can be heard as either a 3–2 or 2–3 sequence.

The seven-beat standard bell pattern includes the beats from both clave patterns. Some North American musicians call this pattern clave. Others refer to the triple-pulse form as the 8 bell because they write it in two measures of 8.

Like clave, the standard pattern is shown in both triple-pulse and two-pulse forms. The standard pattern has beats on: 1, 1a, 2&, 2a, 3&, 4, 4a.

The ethnomusicologist A.M. Jones notes that the son clave, rumba clave, and the standard pattern are the most commonly used key patterns (also called bell patterns, timeline patterns, and guide patterns) in Sub-Saharan African music traditions. He considers all three to be the same basic pattern. These patterns are all based on the same rhythmic principles and are found in a large area stretching from Mali in northwest Africa to Mozambique in southeast Africa.

"68clave" as used by North American musicians

In Afro-Cuban folkloric music, the triple-pulse (8 or 8) rumba clave is the most common example of a guide pattern. Even when drums use a duple-pulse (4), as in guaguancó, the clave is often played with shifted beats that are more like triple-pulse than duple-pulse. John Santos explains: "The proper feel of this [rumba clave] rhythm is closer to triple [pulse]."

In salsa and Latin jazz, especially in North America, the duple-pulse (4) is the basic structure, and the triple-pulse (8) is sometimes seen as unusual or confusing. The complex rhythm (using multiple beat patterns) is often mistakenly thought to be unclear in terms of timing. North American musicians often call the Afro-Cuban triple-pulse rhythm a "feel," a term used for subtle musical details that are hard to analyze. In this context, "8 clave" can refer to three different types of triple-pulse patterns.

When triple-pulse rhythms are heard in Latin jazz, the percussion usually follows the Afro-Cuban rhythm called bembé. The standard bell pattern in bembé is the key rhythm used. Therefore, in compositions based on triple-pulse rhythms, the seven-stroke bell is more familiar to jazz musicians than the five-stroke clave. Because of this, some North American musicians call the triple-pulse standard pattern "8 clave."

Some people also refer to the triple-pulse version of rumba clave as "8 clave." When rumba clave is written in 8, the four main beats are counted as: 1, 2, 1, 2.

Exceptions include the rumba style called Columbia and some performances of abakuá by rumba groups, where the 8 rumba clave pattern is played on claves.

The triple-pulse son clave is the least common type of clave in Cuban music. However, it is found in many areas of sub-Saharan Africa. The first published example (1920) of this pattern was identified as a hand-clap part from a song in Mozambique.

Cross-rhythm and the correct metric structure

Clave-based music uses cross-rhythm, so people can count or feel the 8 clave in different ways. A music expert named Arthur Morris Jones correctly recognized the importance of this key pattern, but he thought the accents showed the main rhythm instead of the non-main rhythm patterns they actually are. Similarly, Anthony King identified the triple-pulse "son clave" as the simplest form of the pattern, but he did not correctly explain its rhythm structure. King wrote the pattern using a time signature that shows multiple rhythms.

It was not until African music experts like C.K. Ladzekpo studied this topic in the 1970s and 1980s that the rhythm structure of sub-Saharan music was clearly explained. The work of Victor Kofi Agawu and David Locke also helped clarify these ideas.

In the diagram below, the 8 (son) clave is shown at the top, and a beat cycle is shown below it. Any or all of these structures can be the focus in a piece of music that uses the "8 clave."

The example on the left (8) shows the correct way to count and the main beats of the "8 clave." The four dotted quarter-notes in the two bottom measures are the main beats. All clave patterns are built on four main beats. The bottom measures in the other two examples (2 and 4) show additional beats. Watching a dancer's steps usually helps reveal the main beats of the music. Since the main beats are often emphasized in the steps rather than the music itself, it can be hard for someone who is not familiar with the dance to feel the correct rhythm structure without seeing the dance. Kubik wrote: "To understand the emotional structure of any music in Africa, it is important to watch dancers and see how they move with the instrumental background" (2010: 78).

3–2/2–3 clave concept and terminology

In Cuban popular music, a chord progression can begin on either side of the clave. If the progression starts on the three-side, the song or section is called 3–2 clave. If it starts on the two-side, it is called 2–3 clave. In North America, salsa and Latin jazz charts often write clave in two measures of cut-time (2/4). This style likely comes from jazz traditions. When clave is written in two measures, switching between 3–2 and 2–3 clave involves reversing the order of the measures.

A guajeo is a typical Cuban repeating melody, often made of chords played in a flowing, syncopated pattern. Guajeos combine European harmonic structures with African rhythmic patterns. Most guajeos have a two-part structure that reflects the clave.

Kevin Moore explains: "In Cuban popular music, the three-side of the clave is often expressed in two ways. The first, called 'clave motif' by David Peñalosa, uses a decorated version of the three-side rhythm." An example guajeo is based on this motif. The three-side (first measure) uses a rhythm called cinquillo, a variation of tresillo.

Since this chord progression starts on the three-side, the song or section is in 3–2 clave.

Moore adds: "By the 1940s, a trend began using what Peñalosa calls the 'offbeat/onbeat motif.' Today, this method is more common." In this style, the three-side of the clave is played using only offbeats. An example I–IV–V–IV chord progression in 3–2 clave begins with an offbeat note before beat 1. In some guajeos, offbeats at the end of the two-side or beats at the end of the three-side act as starting points for the next measure when clave is written in two measures.

A chord progression can begin on either side of the clave. This means a song can be on the three-side or two-side, as the harmonic progression, not the rhythm, is the main focus. A guajeo example in 2–3 clave starts on the downbeat, emphasizing the onbeat quality of the two-side. The harmonic sequence matches the earlier offbeat/onbeat example, but the rhythm reverses the order of the two measures. Most salsa music uses 2–3 clave, and many salsa piano guajeos are based on the 2–3 onbeat/offbeat motif.

The 3–2/2–3 system was developed in New York City during the 1940s by Mario Bauzá, a Cuban-born musician who led Machito and his Afro-Cubans. Bauzá was skilled at shifting a song from one side of the clave to the other.

A melody from "Que vengan los rumberos" by Machito and his Afro-Cubans shows the melody moving between sides of the clave and returning. A measure of 4/4 moves the chord progression from the two-side (2–3) to the three-side (3–2). Later, another measure of 4/4 moves the progression back to the two-side (2–3).

According to David Peñalosa:
Tito Puente learned the concept from Bauzá. His song "Philadelphia Mambo" uses the technique of shifting between sides of the clave. This method became a standard in salsa and Latin jazz composition.

According to Kevin Moore:
Cuban folkloric musicians do not use the 3–2/2–3 system. Many Cuban popular musicians also do not use it. Mongo Santamaría, a famous Cuban conga player and bandleader, said, "Don’t tell me about 3–2 or 2–3! In Cuba, we just play. We feel it, we don’t talk about such things." In another statement, Santamaría said, "In Cuba, we don’t think about [clave]. We know that we’re in a clave. Because we know that we have to be in clave to be a musician." Cuban pianist Sonny Bravo said Charlie Palmieri insisted, "There’s no such thing as 3–2 or 2–3, there’s only one clave!" Contemporary Cuban bassist Alain Pérez stated, "In Cuba, we do not use that 2–3, 3–2 formula… 2–3, 3–2 [is] not used in Cuba. That is how people learn Cuban music outside Cuba."

In non-Cuban music

The way the clave is used in music and where it came from is a topic of discussion among musicians. This section shows examples from music outside of Cuba, which some believe represent the clave. Common examples include Brazilian music and certain types of American popular music, which are described below.

The word "clave" comes from Spanish. It refers to a musical pattern played on two sticks called claves. This pattern developed in western Cuba, especially in cities like Matanzas and Havana. Some sources say the clave patterns originated in Cuba. One idea is that African bell patterns with three beats changed into two-beat patterns because of European musical influences. "The two-beat feel of 4 rumba clave may have been influenced by marching bands and other Spanish styles," writes Washburne (1995).

However, two-beat patterns have been used in parts of Africa for many years. The patterns that Cubans call clave are similar to common bell parts in African music traditions. Scholars like Natalie Curtis, A.M. Jones, Anthony King, and John Collins found examples of three-beat patterns called "son clave" and "rumba clave" in West, Central, and East Africa. Francis Kofi and C.K. Ladzekpo found similar patterns in Ghanaian rhythms. Percussion expert Royal Hartigan noted that the two-beat "rumba clave" is a timeline pattern used by the Yoruba and Ibo of Nigeria. He also found this pattern in the atoke bell, played by the Eve people of Ghana. Many traditional African music recordings include the five-stroke "clave" as a bell pattern.

Cuban music became popular in Africa starting in the mid-1900s. To Africans, clave-based Cuban music sounded both familiar and new. Congolese bands began playing Cuban songs and singing the lyrics in French or Lingala, a common language in western Congo. They later created their own songs with Cuban-like rhythms. The Congolese called this music "rumba," even though it was based on the Cuban "son." They adapted guajeos (specific rhythmic patterns) to electric guitars and gave them a local style. This music spread across Africa, leading to new regional styles like soukous.

The following soukous bass line is a variation of the clave pattern. Musician Banning Eyre describes the Congolese guitar style using a simplified version of the clave, where the bass notes (marked with downward stems) represent the clave.

Highlife was a popular music style in Ghana and Nigeria during the 1960s. The highlife guitar part is similar to guajeos in Cuba, which are called "baqueteo." The rhythm matches the 3–2 clave pattern used in Cuban music. The bell pattern known as clave in Cuba is also found in Ghana and Nigeria, where it is used in highlife.

The following Afrobeat guitar part uses a variation of the 2–3 onbeat/offbeat rhythm. This pattern is similar to guajeos, but the clave is not usually played in Afrobeat.

There is debate about whether the clave in Cuban music works the same way as similar rhythms in other music styles, such as Brazilian, American, and African music. In some Cuban music, the clave has a strict relationship with other parts of the music. Similar relationships are also found in rhythms from sub-Saharan Africa, Haiti, and Brazil. However, the 3–2/2–3 concept and terminology are specific to Cuban-based music and are not used in African, Haitian, Brazilian, or Afro-Cuban folk music. In American pop music, the clave is often used as a rhythmic color rather than a guide pattern, meaning it is layered over other rhythms.

Both Cuba and Brazil received enslaved people from Yoruba, Fon, and Congolese backgrounds. This explains why the bell pattern called "clave" appears in Afro-Brazilian music like Macumba and Maculelê (a dance). "Son clave" and "rumba clave" are also used in some batucada arrangements on the tamborim. The structure of Afro-Brazilian bell patterns can be understood using the clave concept. While some Brazilian musicians now use the 3–2/2–3 terminology, it is not traditionally part of Brazilian music.

Bell pattern 1 is used in Maculelê and some Candomblé and Macumba rhythms. It is called "son clave" in Cuba. Bell pattern 2 is used in afoxê and is similar to pattern 1 but with extra beats. Bell pattern 3 is used in batucada. Bell pattern 4 is the maracatu bell and is similar to pattern 1 with extra beats.

An example of the clave pattern appears in Pixinguinha’s choro music. The "bossa nova clave" (or "Brazilian clave") has a rhythm similar to "son clave," but the second note on the two-beat side is delayed by one subdivision. This rhythm is often played as a snare rim pattern in bossa nova. It is written in 4 in Brazil but may be written in cut-time in North America.

Drummer Bobby Sanabria notes that Brazilian composer Antonio Carlos Jobim, who created the bossa nova pattern, considered it a simple rhythm, not a guide pattern. Jobim later said he regretted that some Latino musicians misunderstood its role.

Examples of patterns similar to the Cuban clave in Brazilian music are shown below, played on ago-gô and surdo instruments.

Legend: Time signature: 4; L=low bell, H=high bell, O = open surdo hit, X = muffled surdo hit, and | divides the measure:

• Style: Samba 3:2; LL.L.H.H|L.L.L.H. (More common 3:2: .L.L.H.H|L.L.L.H. )
• Style: Maracatu 3:2; LH.HL.H.|L.H.LH.H
• Style: Samba 3:2; L|.L.L..L.|..L..L.L|
• Instrument: 3rd Surdo 2:3; X…O.O.|X…OO.O
• Variation of samba style: Partido Alto 2:3; L.H..L.L|.H..L.L.
• Style: Maracatu 2:3; L.H.L.H.|LH.HL.H.
• Style: Samba-Reggae or Bossanova 3:2; O..O..O.|..O..O..
• Style: Ijexa 3:2; LL.L.LL.|L.L.L.L. ( HH.L.LL.|H.H.L.L. )

For the third example, the clave pattern is based on a common rhythm played by guitarists. B=bass note played by the guitarist’s thumb, C=chord played by fingers.

In some recordings, the singer starts on the wrong side of the clave, and the ago-gô player adjusts. These recordings often begin in the middle of a measure, making it seem like the bell starts on the third beat. This shows a planned relationship between the vocal part and percussion, suggesting a clave-like structure in Brazilian music.

The "son clave" rhythm appears in Jamaican mento music, found on 1950s recordings like