The bassoon is a musical instrument in the woodwind family that plays in the tenor and bass ranges. It is made up of six parts and is usually made of wood. It is known for its unique sound, wide range, versatility, and skill. It is a non-transposing instrument, and its music is typically written in the bass and tenor clefs, sometimes in the treble clef. There are two types of modern bassoon: the Buffet (or French) and Heckel (or German) systems. It is usually played while sitting with a seat strap, but can also be played while standing if the player uses a harness to hold the instrument. Sound is made by pressing the lips against the reed and blowing air to make it vibrate. Its fingering system is more complex than those of other instruments. The modern bassoon appeared in the 19th century and is often used in orchestral, concert band, and chamber music. It is also sometimes played in pop, rock, and jazz music. A person who plays the bassoon is called a bassoonist.
Etymology
The word "bassoon" comes from the French word "basson" and the Italian word "bassone," which combines "basso" (meaning low) with the suffix "-one" (used to emphasize or intensify a word). These terms describe the low-pitched version of an instrument. In classical music, the bassoon is often called "fagotto" (plural: fagotti), a name that originally referred to the dulcian, an earlier instrument. The word "fagotto" appears in many European languages as "fagot," "fagote," or "Fagott" in German. It comes from an Old French word meaning "a bundle of sticks."
Characteristics
The bassoon's range starts at B♭1, which is the first note below the bass staff, and continues upward over three octaves, reaching approximately G5, the G above the treble staff. However, most musical compositions for the bassoon rarely use notes higher than C5 or D5. For example, Stravinsky's opening solo in The Rite of Spring reaches D5, while Ravel's Piano Concerto includes E5. Notes above this range are possible but uncommon, as they are challenging to play (often requiring special reed designs for consistency). These high notes also sound very similar to the same pitches played by the cor anglais, which can produce them more easily. The French bassoon has better ability to play extremely high notes, so some musical pieces written for it may include very high pitches. However, music composed for the French system can be played on the German system and vice versa without changes.
The bassoon's wide high range and its frequent use as a lyrical tenor voice mean that the tenor clef is often used in its music after the Baroque period. This helps avoid too many ledger lines. Starting in the 20th century, the treble clef is also used for similar reasons.
Like other woodwind instruments, the bassoon's lowest note is fixed. However, A1 can be played with a special extension on the instrument, as described in "Extended techniques" below.
Although the bassoon's main tone holes produce pitches a perfect fifth lower than other non-transposing Western woodwinds (effectively an octave below the English horn), it is a non-transposing instrument. This means the notes played match the written notes exactly.
Construction
The bassoon comes apart into six main parts, including the reed. These parts are: the bell (6), which extends upward; the bass joint (or long joint) (5), which connects the bell and the boot; the boot (or butt) (4), located at the bottom of the instrument and folded over on itself; the wing joint (or tenor joint) (3), which connects the boot to the bocal; and the bocal (or crook) (2), a curved metal tube that connects the wing joint to the reed (1).
The inside of the bassoon is shaped like a cone, similar to the oboe and the saxophone. The two parts of the boot joint are connected at the bottom of the instrument using a U-shaped metal piece. The inside of the bassoon and the tone holes are carefully made to exact measurements. Each instrument is finished by hand to ensure it is properly tuned. The walls of the bassoon are thicker in some areas. In these places, the tone holes are drilled at an angle to the center of the instrument. This makes the holes closer together on the outside, so they can be easily reached by the fingers of an average adult hand. A complex system of keys helps players cover the holes, which are far apart. The bassoon is about 1.34 meters (4 feet 5 inches) tall, but the total length of the air inside the instrument is 2.54 meters (8 feet 4 inches) because the tube folds back on itself. Some bassoons are shorter to help younger or smaller players.
Modern beginner bassoons are usually made of maple, with types like sycamore maple and sugar maple preferred. Less expensive models are sometimes made of materials like polypropylene and ebonite, often used for students or outdoor performances. Metal bassoons were made in the past but are no longer produced by major manufacturers since 1889.
Making reeds for the bassoon has been practiced for hundreds of years. Early reeds were made for the dulcian, an instrument that came before the bassoon. Today, reed-making follows basic steps, but reeds are often adjusted to match a player’s style. Advanced players usually make their own reeds. Pre-made reeds are also sold, but they often need small changes to fit a player’s needs.
Modern bassoon reeds are made from Arundo donax cane. Many players make their own reeds, but beginners often buy them from professional reed makers or teachers. The process starts with a piece of cane that is split into three or four parts using a tool called a cane splitter. The cane is then cut and shaped to the right thickness, keeping the bark attached. After soaking, the cane is cut to the correct shape and made thinner by removing material from the bark side. This can be done by hand or with a machine. The shaped cane is soaked again and then folded in the middle. Before soaking, the reed maker scores the bark with lines to help it form into a cylinder.
On the bark side, the reed maker adds one, two, or three loops of brass wire to help shape the reed. These loops are placed differently depending on the maker. The reed is then wrapped in thick cotton or linen thread to protect it. A conical metal rod (sometimes heated) is inserted between the blades. Using special pliers, the reed maker presses the cane to match the shape of the rod. The steam from the heated rod helps the cane keep its shape permanently. The top part of the reed is called the "throat," and its shape affects how the reed plays. The bottom part is shaped with a tool called a reamer to fit the bocal.
After the reed dries, the wires are tightened or replaced. The bottom is sealed with a special glue, like Duco, and wrapped with thread to prevent air leaks and keep the reed’s shape. The wrapping is often sealed with Duco, beeswax, or clear nail polish. Electrical tape is sometimes used by amateur makers. The bulge in the wrapping is called the "Turk’s head" and helps hold the reed when attaching it to the bocal. Other materials like hot glue, epoxy, or heat shrink wrap may also be used. The thread wrapping, which looks like a crisscross pattern, is more common in store-bought reeds.
To finish the reed, the center of the cane is cut to create an opening. The blades above the first wire are about 27–30 millimeters (1.1–1.2 inches) long. A small bevel is cut at the tip of the reed with a knife, or a machine can do this. Other adjustments may be needed depending on the cane’s hardness and the player’s needs. The reed’s opening may be adjusted by tightening wires with pliers. Material can be removed from the sides or tip to balance the reed. If the note "e" in the bass clef sounds too low, the reed may be shortened by cutting 1–2 millimeters (0.039–0.079 inches) from its length using sharp scissors.
History
Music historians usually say that the dulcian was the earlier version of the modern bassoon. The two instruments share many features, such as a double reed attached to a metal crook, angled tone holes, and a cone-shaped body that bends back on itself. The dulcian’s origins are unclear, but by the middle of the 16th century, it was available in up to eight sizes, ranging from soprano to great bass. A full group of dulcians was rare, and its main use was to play the lowest notes in wind bands of the time, whether loud (like shawms) or soft (like recorders). This suggests the dulcian could adjust its volume to match the band’s needs. However, its playing technique was basic, with only eight finger holes and two keys, limiting the musical scales it could play.
Evidence suggests the baroque bassoon was a new invention, not just a simple change from the dulcian. The dulcian was still used by composers like Bach into the 18th century, and music from this time likely avoided the larger range of the bassoon. Martin Hotteterre, who died in 1712, is believed to have created the true bassoon. He may also have invented the transverse flute and the baroque oboe. Some historians think he designed the bassoon in four parts (bell, bass joint, boot, and wing joint), which made it easier to shape the instrument’s body compared to the one-piece dulcian. He also added two keys to extend the instrument’s range down to B♭. Others argue Hotteterre was one of several craftsmen involved in developing the early bassoon, including family members and other French makers. No original French bassoon from this time survives, but it would likely look like the earliest surviving bassoons made by Johann Christoph Denner and Richard Haka in the 1680s. Around 1700, a fourth key (G♯) was added, and composers like Vivaldi, Bach, and Telemann wrote music for these instruments. A fifth key (low E♭) was added by the early 18th century. Notable makers of the 4-key and 5-key baroque bassoon include J.H. Eichentopf, J. Poerschmann, Thomas Stanesby Jr., G.H. Scherer, and Prudent Thieriot.
In the 19th century, larger concert halls and the rise of virtuoso performers led to improvements in the bassoon’s design. Better manufacturing and understanding of acoustics made the instrument easier to play.
Today, the modern bassoon exists in two main forms: the Buffet (or "French") system and the Heckel ("German") system. Most people around the world use the Heckel system, while the Buffet system is mainly used in France, Belgium, and parts of Latin America. Other rare types, like the Galandronome, have also been made. In English-speaking countries, references to the modern bassoon usually mean the Heckel system, while the Buffet system is clearly noted when mentioned.
The modern bassoon’s design was greatly influenced by Carl Almenräder, a performer, teacher, and composer. With help from the German acoustics researcher Gottfried Weber, Almenräder created a 17-key bassoon with a range covering four octaves. He wrote a 1823 paper describing ways to improve the instrument’s tuning, responsiveness, and ease of playing by changing the keywork. His work at Schott allowed him to build and test new designs, and he shared his findings in the journal Caecilia. Almenräder continued publishing and building instruments until his death in 1846. Beethoven even asked for one of his new instruments after reading about his work. In 1831, Almenräder left Schott to start his own factory with Johann Adam Heckel.
Heckel and his descendants refined the bassoon further, making their instruments the standard. Their instruments had a better tone than Almenräder’s, competing with other systems like the Wiener (Boehm-style) and the Sax-designed bassoon. A later attempt by F.W. Kruspe in 1893 to change the fingering system failed. Other experiments, like a 24-key model and a single-reed mouthpiece, also did not work well.
By the 20th century, the Heckel-style German bassoon was the most common. Heckel had made over 1,100 instruments by the early 1900s, and British models were no longer preferred for symphony orchestras, remaining mostly in military bands.
Except for a brief wartime shift to making ball bearings in the 1940s, the Heckel company has continuously produced bassoons to today. Many consider Heckel bassoons the best, though other manufacturers make similar instruments with slightly different playing characteristics.
Because the bassoon’s mechanism is simpler than most modern woodwinds, some makers have tried to "reinvent" it. In the 1960s, Giles Brindley developed a "logical bassoon" with an electric mechanism to improve tuning and tone, but it was never sold.
The Buffet system bassoon developed its basic sound earlier than the Heckel system. Its improvements were smaller, focusing mainly on keywork. This approach gave the Buffet a more vocal and expressive tone but limited its tuning consistency and power compared to the Heckel. Some conductors, like John Foulds in 1934, criticized the Heckel-style bassoon for sounding too similar to the horn. The modern Buffet system has 22 keys and the same range as the Heckel, but it plays higher notes (E5 and F5) more easily with less air resistance.
Compared to the Heckel, Buffet bassoons have a narrower body and simpler keys, requiring different fingerings for many notes. Switching between the two systems needs extensive retraining. French woodwinds, including the Buffet bassoon, often have a "edgy" or vocal quality, which some composers have used effectively in their music.
Use in ensembles
Before 1760, the early version of the bassoon was called the dulcian. It was used to strengthen the low part of music played by wind instrument groups called consorts. However, the dulcian was not often used in large orchestras until the late 1600s, when instruments with two reeds began to be included in standard orchestral music. As the dulcian was used more in music that needed a strong foundation, it started appearing in opera orchestras, in works by composers like Reinhard Keiser and Jean-Baptiste Lully. At the same time, as the dulcian improved in design and could play more complex music, composers such as Joseph Bodin de Boismortier, Johann Ernst Galliard, Johann Friedrich Fasch, and Georg Philipp Telemann wrote difficult solo and group music for the instrument. Antonio Vivaldi made the dulcian famous by including it in thirty-nine concertos.
Although the bassoon was still used to make the low part of music clear because of its deep, rich sound, wind instruments became more versatile as technology improved during the Classical era. This allowed the bassoon to play in more musical keys than the dulcian. Joseph Haydn used this in his Symphony No. 45 ("Farewell Symphony"), where the bassoon plays in F-sharp minor. As technology advanced, composers began to use the bassoon for its unique sound, flexibility, and ability to play difficult music, not just for its basic role of supporting the low part. Composers like Ludwig van Beethoven in his three Duos for Clarinet and Bassoon (WoO 27) and Niccolò Paganini in his duets for violin and bassoon used the bassoon in this way. In his Bassoon Concerto in B-flat major, K. 191, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart used all parts of the bassoon's sound, including its ability to play high and low notes, short notes, and expressive tones. This concerto is still considered one of the most important works for the bassoon.
The bassoon's sound, which is similar to the human voice, and its ability to play difficult music were qualities composers used during the Classical era. After 1730, the German bassoon's range expanded to B♭4, and the French version could play even higher. As technology improved, the bassoon's middle range became more powerful, and playing in this range became popular, especially in Austro-Germanic music. Teachers like Josef Frohlich taught students to practice scales, thirds, and fourths, just like singing students. In 1829, he wrote that the bassoon could express emotions like "dignity, strength, solemnity, and deep feeling." In a performance of Carl Maria von Weber's Concerto for Bassoon in F Major, Op. 75, the bassoon was compared to the human voice. In France, Pierre Cugnier described the bassoon's role as not only supporting the low part but also accompanying the voice and harp, playing with clarinets and horns in Harmonie ensembles, and appearing in many types of music, including concertos. Both Cugnier and Étienne Ozi emphasized how the bassoon's sound resembled singing.
The bassoon's role in orchestras changed depending on the country. In Viennese orchestras, the bassoon added depth to the music by playing parts that matched other instruments like violins, as heard in Mozart's overture to The Marriage of Figaro, K. 492, where it plays a complex part with the strings. Mozart also wrote for the bassoon to change its sound depending on the instrument it was paired with: warmer with clarinets, hollow with flutes, and dark and dignified with violins. In Germany and Scandinavian countries, orchestras usually had only two bassoons. But in France, orchestras added more bassoons, increasing to four by the late 1800s. In England, the bassoon's role varied by group. Johann Christian Bach wrote two concertos for solo bassoon, and it also helped support church choirs after many church organs were destroyed. In the American colonies, the bassoon was often used in small groups. After the Revolutionary War, bassoonists played in wind bands that performed publicly. By 1800, there was at least one bassoon in the United States Marine Band. In South America, the bassoon appeared in small orchestras, bands, and military music groups similar to Harmonie ensembles.
During the Romantic era, the bassoon was used both as a supporting instrument and as a highly skilled solo instrument. Composers often used the bassoon's sound to mimic the human voice. Giuseppe Verdi used the bassoon's singing quality to create emotion in works like his Messa da Requiem. Eugène Jancourt compared the use of vibrato on the bassoon to that of singers, and Luigi Orselli noted that the bassoon blended well with the human voice. He also described the bassoon's role in French orchestras, which supported the viola, reinforced short notes, and doubled the bass, clarinet, flute, and oboe. The bassoon's ability to play short, sharp notes became important, as seen in Hector Berlioz's Symphonie fantastique, Op. 14, and in Paul Dukas's The Sorcerer's Apprentice, where the staccato sound was used to depict brooms coming to life.
It was common for German orchestras to have only two bassoons. Austrian and British military bands also had two bassoons, mainly used for support and offbeat playing. In France, Hector Berlioz popularized using more than two bassoons, often writing for three or four, and even up to eight in his l'Impériale.
At this time, composers expected bassoons to be as skilled as other wind instruments, often writing challenging parts that tested the instrument's range and technique. Examples include Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov's bassoon solo in Sheherazade, Op. 35, and Richard Wagner's Tannhäuser, which required the bassoonist to use a special technique called triple tonguing and play up to the highest note in its range, E5. Wagner also used the bassoon's staccato ability and wrote parts in thirds to create a darker sound. In Modest Mussorgsky's *
Technique
The bassoon is held diagonally in front of the player. Unlike the flute, oboe, and clarinet, it cannot be easily supported by the player’s hands alone. Additional support is usually needed. Common methods include a seat strap attached to the base of the boot joint, which is placed across the chair before sitting. A neck strap or shoulder harness may also be used, attached to the top of the boot joint. Occasionally, a spike is attached to the bottom of the boot joint and rests on the floor. Players can stand while playing if a neck strap or seat strap is tied to the belt. A device called a balance hanger may be used when standing. It connects the instrument to the neck strap and shifts the weight closer to the center of gravity, balancing the weight between the hands.
The bassoon is played with both hands in a stationary position. The left hand is above the right. Five main finger holes are on the front of the instrument, nearest the audience, plus a sixth activated by an open-standing key. Five additional keys on the front are controlled by the little fingers of each hand. The back of the instrument, nearest the player, has twelve or more keys controlled by the thumbs, with the exact number depending on the model.
To stabilize the right hand, many bassoonists use an adjustable comma-shaped device called a "crutch" or hand rest, which attaches to the boot joint. The crutch is secured with a thumb screw, allowing the distance it extends from the bassoon to be adjusted. Players rest the curve of the right hand, where the thumb meets the palm, against the crutch. The crutch prevents the right hand from tiring and helps keep the finger pads flat on the finger holes and keys.
A technique unique to the bassoon is called "flicking." It involves the left hand thumb briefly pressing the high A, C, and D keys at the start of certain notes in the middle octave. This helps create a smooth transition from a lower note and prevents cracking, which is a brief, unintended sound. An alternative method is called "venting," which uses the register key as part of the fingering instead of leaving it open. This is sometimes called the "European style." Venting slightly raises the pitch of notes and can be helpful when tuning to higher frequencies. Some bassoonists use flicking for A and B♭ when tonguing for clearer articulation, but flicking or venting is commonly used for slurs.
For lower notes, a technique called the "whisper key" is used. Starting from the A♭ just below middle C and lower, the whisper key is pressed with the left thumb and held for the duration of the note. This prevents cracking, as low notes can sometimes jump to a higher octave. Both flicking and the whisper key are important for ensuring notes sound properly during slurs between high and low registers.
Bassoons are usually tuned precisely at the factory, but players can adjust pitch using breath support, embouchure (the way the lips and mouth are shaped), and the reed’s profile. Alternate fingerings can also be used to change the pitch of many notes. Like other woodwinds, the bassoon’s length can be adjusted to lower or raise the pitch. This is done by changing the bocal (a curved metal tube) to one of different lengths. Bocal lengths are marked with numbers, usually starting at 0 for the shortest and 3 for the longest, though some manufacturers use different numbers. The bocal can also be slightly pushed in or out to make large pitch adjustments.
The embouchure is crucial for producing a full, rich sound on the bassoon. The lips are rolled over the teeth, often with the upper lip extending further, like an "overbite." The lips apply pressure to the entire reed, controlling intonation and harmonic quality. This pressure must be constantly adjusted with each note. The position of the lips on the reed affects the tone and how the reed responds to pressure.
The main muscles used in the embouchure are around the lips, which shape the reed for the desired sound. The jaw is raised or lowered to adjust the mouth cavity for better reed control, but jaw muscles are used less for upward pressure than in single-reed instruments. They are mainly used in the very high register. However, some double-reed students "bite" the reed with their jaw muscles, which can make the sound sharp and "choked" by narrowing the reed’s opening and limiting vibration.
In addition to the embouchure, students must develop strong muscle control in the diaphragm, throat, neck, and upper chest. These muscles help increase and direct air pressure, which is vital for tone, intonation, and projection on double-reed instruments. Air pressure affects these qualities as much as, or more than, the embouchure does.
Playing a note with incorrect muscle or air pressure can lead to poor intonation, cracking, or unintended sounds. These issues are worsened by the inconsistency of reeds, which behave differently due to inherent and external factors.
Because of the physical demands and reed variability, it takes time for bassoonists and oboists to develop an embouchure that works consistently across all reeds, dynamics, and playing environments.
Bassoon fingering techniques vary widely between players more than any other orchestral woodwind. The complex mechanism and acoustics mean some notes (especially in the higher range) lack simple fingerings with good sound or intonation. However, there are many complex, high-quality fingerings available for these notes. Simpler fingerings are often used as alternate or trill fingerings, while more complex ones are used as "full fingerings" for optimal sound. The choice of fingerings is up to the player, and they may experiment to find new alternate fingerings that suit their style.
These differences in technique lead to significant variation in "full" and alternate fingerings between bassoonists. Factors like cultural preferences, reed-making methods, and regional tuning standards also influence technique. While regional groups of bassoonists may share some similarities, globally, techniques differ so much that two players might not share any fingerings for certain notes. Because of these factors, there is no single, universally accepted way to notate bassoon technique.
The left thumb operates nine keys: B♭1, B1, C2, D2, D5, C5 (also B4), two keys that together create A4, and the whisper