The Appalachian dulcimer (many variant names; see below) is a string instrument with frets, part of the zither family. It usually has three or four strings and was first played in the Appalachian region of the United States. The body of the instrument is the same length as the fingerboard, and the frets are generally diatonic.

Name

The Appalachian dulcimer has many different names. It is most commonly called a dulcimer, though it is also sometimes spelled "dulcimore," "dulcymore," "delcimer," or "delcimore."

When it is necessary to tell it apart from the unrelated hammered dulcimer, adjectives are added to its name. These adjectives describe features such as where it is from, how it is played, its shape, or its design.

Examples include mountain dulcimer, Kentucky dulcimer, plucked dulcimer, fretted dulcimer, lap dulcimer, teardrop dulcimer, and box dulcimer.

The instrument is also known by several nicknames, some of which are shared with other instruments. These include "harmonium," "hog fiddle," "music box," "harmony box," and "mountain zither."

Origins and history

The Appalachian dulcimer first appeared in the early 1800s among Scotch-Irish immigrant communities in the Appalachian Mountains. However, there is no known record of the instrument in Ireland, Scotland, or Northern England. Because of this and a lack of written records, the history of the Appalachian dulcimer was not well understood until recent years. Since 1980, more research has shown that the dulcimer developed through several distinct periods and may have been influenced by similar European instruments, including the Swedish hummel, the Norwegian langeleik, the German scheitholt, and the French épinette des Vosges. Folk historian Lucy M. Long noted:

Charles Maxson, an Appalachian luthier from Volga, West Virginia, believed that early settlers could not make the more complex violin in the early days because of limited tools and time. This may have led to the creation of the dulcimer, which has simpler curves. He also mentioned the langeleik, scheitholt, and épinette des Vosges as possible ancestor instruments.

Very few examples of the mountain dulcimer exist from before about 1880, when J. Edward Thomas of Knott County, Kentucky, began building and selling them. The instrument became popular as a parlor instrument, as its quiet sound was well-suited for small home gatherings. However, during the first half of the 20th century, the mountain dulcimer was rare, with only a few makers supplying players in scattered areas of Appalachia. Almost no audio recordings of the instrument exist from before the late 1930s.

The soprano Loraine Wyman, who performed Appalachian folk songs in concerts around the time of World War I, helped increase the instrument’s visibility by demonstrating it in concerts. She was photographed in Vogue magazine holding a Thomas dulcimer. However, Wyman preferred singing with the support of a piano. The dulcimer gained widespread popularity in the 1950s during the urban folk music revival in the United States, thanks to Jean Ritchie, a Kentucky musician who performed with the instrument in New York City. In the early 1960s, Ritchie and her husband, George Pickow, began distributing dulcimers made by Ritchie’s relative, Jethro Amburgey, who was a woodworking instructor at the Hindman Settlement School in Kentucky. Later, they started producing their own instruments in New York City. At the same time, American folk musician Richard Fariña (1937–1966) also helped bring the Appalachian dulcimer to a larger audience, and by 1965, the instrument was widely known in folk music circles.

Other influential builders of the mid-1960s included Homer Ledford, Lynn McSpadden, A.W. Jeffreys, and Joellen Lapidus. In 1969, Michael and Howard Rugg formed a company called Capritaurus. They were the first to mass-produce the instrument and made design changes to make it easier to produce and play. They increased the size of the body and used metal friction or geared tuners instead of traditional wooden pegs to improve tuning ease and reliability.

Construction and form

The Appalachian dulcimer is a plucked box-shaped zither and is considered a folk instrument. Traditionally, these instruments are made of wood, and early versions were often constructed from a single type of wood commonly found in the mountain regions where they were built. More recently, construction methods inspired by guitars have been used, with softer woods like spruce or cedar chosen for the top of the soundbox. Harder woods, such as mahogany or rosewood, are used for the back, sides, and neck, while the fingerboard is made from hardwoods like rosewood, maple, or ebony. Many modern dulcimers are still made in America, and American hardwoods such as walnut, oak, cherry, and apple are frequently used by makers.

Like many folk instruments, Appalachian dulcimers come in many shapes, sizes, and designs. However, some forms are more popular than others. The general shape includes a long, narrow soundbox with the "neck" centered in the soundbox and running the full length of the instrument. Typical dulcimers are 70–100 cm (27 1/2–39 1/2 in.) long, 16–19 cm (6 1/2–7 1/2 in.) wide at the widest part, and have a uniform depth of about 5–6 cm (2–2.5 in.). The top of the fingerboard is about 1.25 cm (1/2 in.) above the soundbox. The soundbox usually has two to four soundholes, with two in the lower and upper parts. These soundholes can be shaped like hearts, violin-style "f-holes," or other unique designs chosen by the maker.

The overall shape of the instrument has varied, but the most common forms are the hourglass (or figure 8), ellipse, teardrop, and a long, narrow trapezoid or rectangle.

At one end of the neck is the headstock, which holds the tuners. Headstocks are often shaped like a scroll (similar to violins) or resemble those on parlor guitars or banjos. The shape of the headstock may depend on the type of tuners used. Older instruments and some modern traditional designs use wooden friction pegs similar to violins, while modern dulcimers typically use metal tuning machines, either adjustable friction or geared (like those on guitars).

At the other end of the neck is the tailblock, which holds pins or brads to secure the looped ends of the strings. Strings stretch between the end pins and tuners, passing over a bridge (near the tailblock) and a nut (near the headstock), which determines the length of the strings that vibrate. Between the nut and bridge is the fingerboard, which has 12–16 metal frets spaced in a diatonic pattern. A zero fret may or may not be used. The neck is carved between the fingerboard and bridge to create a hollow area called the strum hollow, where the plectrum, fingers, or beater is used to play the strings.

Both single-player and two-player dulcimers have been made, as well as multi-neck instruments. Most Appalachian dulcimers are single-neck, single-player instruments with two to a dozen strings. Older instruments often had three strings, while modern ones typically have 3, 4, 5, or 6 strings arranged in courses (groups of strings). Common arrangements include:

• 3-string: Three single-string courses.
• 4-string: Three courses, two single-strung and one double-strung (the highest-pitched course is usually double-strung).
• 4-string: Four single-string courses.
• 5-string: Three courses, two double-strung and one single-strung (the middle course is single-strung).
• 5-string: Four courses, one double-strung and three single-strung (the melody course is double-strung).
• 6-string: Three double-strung courses.

Appalachian dulcimers are often made by individual craftsmen and small family-run businesses in the American South, especially in Appalachia. Custom-made dulcimers are common and can be less expensive than custom-built stringed instruments like guitars or mandolins.

In recent years, inexpensive dulcimers imported from countries like Romania, Pakistan, and China have started to appear in the American market. John Bailey’s book, Making an Appalachian Dulcimer, is one of several still in print that provide instructions for building a dulcimer.

Frets, strings, tuning and modes

The frets on the Appalachian dulcimer are usually placed in a diatonic scale. This is different from instruments like the guitar or banjo, which use a chromatic scale. Starting in the mid-1950s, some makers added an extra fret, often called the "six and a half" or "6+" fret, which is a half step below the octave. This allows players to use the Ionian mode when the dulcimer is tuned to D3-A3-D4 (a traditional tuning for the Mixolydian mode), where the scale begins on the open string. This setup makes it easier to play chord-melody music. Later, a fret one octave above the 6+ fret, called the "13+" fret, was added. By the late 1970s, these extra frets became standard.

Some builders later added more frets at the "1+" and "8+" positions or, alternatively, the "4+" and "11+" positions. These additional frets allow players to use more scales and modes without changing the tuning. This trend eventually led to fully chromatic dulcimers, which have twelve frets per octave, enabling music to be played in any key without re-tuning. The Original Chromatic Mountain Dulcimer was a Diatonic Mountain Dulcimer that had five extra frets (0+, 1+, 3+, 4+, and 6+) added in all octaves, allowing it to play in every key. Chromatic fretting was once controversial among dulcimer players, with some preferring the traditional diatonic fingerboard for its perceived authenticity.

Appalachian dulcimers are typically strung with metal wire strings, and wound strings may be used for the lower-pitched courses. These strings are similar to those on banjos and guitars. Before special "dulcimer sets" were available, banjo strings were often used. On a typical dulcimer, string gauges range from about 0.010 inches to 0.026 inches in diameter, though other gauges may be used for special tunings or playing styles.

There is no single "standard tuning" for the Appalachian dulcimer, but certain tunings have become more popular. Traditionally, the dulcimer was tuned (from left to right) to G3-G3-C3, C4-G3-C3, or C4-F3-C3. However, when the instrument is held upright, the highest-pitched string is on the left, which is the opposite of most other string instruments. Dulcimer players usually name their strings from lowest to highest, meaning the strings are often listed in reverse order from how they appear on the instrument. For example, the tunings above would be written as C3-G3-G3, C3-G3-C4, and C3-F3-C4. This convention will be used for the rest of the text.

During the Appalachian dulcimer revival of the 1950s and 1960s, players began favoring higher-pitched tunings, which they believed made the instrument sound "brighter." This led to traditional tunings being raised by a whole step, resulting in modern common tunings like D3-A3-A3, D3-A3-D4, and D3-G3-D4.

The tuning D3-A3-A3 follows a I-V-V harmonic relationship. The tonic note of the diatonic major scale is on the bass string, and the middle and melody strings are a perfect fifth above it. This places the tonic fret on the melody string at the third fret, making it easier to play melodies in the Ionian mode (the major scale). The melody is played on the top string, while the unfretted drone strings provide harmony.

To play in a different key or mode, a traditional player would need to retune the instrument. For example, tuning to D3-A3-C4 allows playing the Aeolian mode (the natural minor scale), where the scale begins at the first fret.

The most common modern tuning is D3-A3-D4. Some teachers prefer the older tuning D3-A3-A3 or the "Reverse Ionian" tuning, D3-G3-D4. In "Reverse" tunings, the key note is on the middle string, and the bass string is the fifth of the scale, one octave below the middle string. This tuning is sometimes considered easier for beginners. From D3-G3-D4, a capo can be placed on the first fret to play in the Dorian mode, or the second string can be retuned to A3 to play in the Mixolydian mode. From Mixolydian, a capo on the first fret can be used to play in the Aeolian mode.

Playing

The Appalachian dulcimer is a simple instrument with three or four strings and a basic fret pattern. It is often considered one of the easiest string instruments to learn. To play it traditionally, the instrument is placed flat on the lap, and the right hand plucks or strums the strings while the left hand presses the strings to change the pitch. Alternatively, the dulcimer can be placed on a wooden table, which helps increase the sound volume. The melody strings are usually positioned on the player’s side, and the bass string is on the outside.

In traditional playing, a small stick called a "noter"—often made from wood or bamboo—is used to press the melody string. The other strings, called drones, are left unfretted and sound continuously. This method is now called "noter-drone" play. Some players use a feather without its barbs to strum the dulcimer. Early dulcimers had simple wire staples that only covered part of the fingerboard, allowing only the melody strings to be fretted. By the 1960s, most makers used full-width fret wire across the entire fingerboard. This change allowed players to press all strings, enabling chords and a wider range of notes. New playing styles, called "chord-melody" play, emerged. The use of full-width frets also required makers to adjust the instrument to a standard tuning system called equal temperament. Older instruments with partial frets often had different tunings, which created unique sounds but could cause dissonance when chords were played.

Modern dulcimers with full-width frets allow players to use techniques from other string instruments, expanding the dulcimer’s versatility. Many styles of playing exist. For example, players may pluck the strings with their fingers, use a small stick, or even play with a bow. Jean Ritchie’s book includes a photo of Mrs. Leah Smith of Kentucky playing the dulcimer with a bow. Robert Force and Al d’Ossché describe a method where the dulcimer is worn like a guitar, with the fretting hand pressing the strings overhand. Others play "autoharp style," holding the dulcimer vertically with the headstock over the shoulder. Lynn McSpadden notes that some players tilt the dulcimer sideways on their laps and strum it like a guitar. Some players use fingerstyle techniques, pressing chord positions with one hand and plucking individual strings with the other to create soft, flowing sounds.

Contemporary use

The Appalachian dulcimer is now an important instrument in American old-time music. However, today’s dulcimer players use it in many different ways, from traditional folk music to modern and experimental styles. Some musicians enjoy how its sound is similar to instruments from the Middle East and Asia. In recent years, more musicians have helped make the electric version of the dulcimer popular. Festivals celebrating the Appalachian dulcimer happen regularly in the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, and Ireland because the instrument is loved by people in many countries.

Although the mountain dulcimer was once mainly played by older people, younger musicians have started to enjoy it too. It is easy to play, so many music teachers use it in classrooms to help students learn. Because of this, some schools make their own dulcimers. However, these homemade versions are often made from cardboard due to limited money, time, and skill.

Brian Jones, a member of The Rolling Stones, played the electric Appalachian dulcimer on their 1966 album Aftermath, especially on the song "Lady Jane." He was seen playing the instrument during a performance on the Ed Sullivan Show. Jones was inspired to use the dulcimer after listening to recordings by Richard Fariña. Another famous player is singer-songwriter Joni Mitchell, who first used the dulcimer in studio recordings in the late 1960s. She played it on her 1971 album Blue and in live performances. Peter Buck of R.E.M. and Paul Westerberg of The Replacements also play the electric Appalachian dulcimer. Paul Westerberg used it on The Replacements’ 1989 song "I’ll Be You."

Cyndi Lauper, a well-known musician, learned to play the mountain dulcimer from David Schnaufer. She played the instrument on her ninth album, The Body Acoustic, and performed songs like "Time After Time" and "She Bop" on the mountain dulcimer during her tour. Some musicians today make the dulcimer their main instrument. These include Stephen Seifert from Nashville and Rory Gallagher, an Irish blues guitarist who used the dulcimer on his later albums. Orlando-based musician Bing Futch plays a special mountain dulcimer with two fretboards and a custom resonator. He is one of only two mountain dulcimer players to compete in the International Blues Challenge. In 2015, he reached the semifinals, and in 2016, he made it to the finals and won "Best Guitarist" in the solo-duo category, even though he played only the Appalachian mountain dulcimer.

Dave Cousins, a member of the band Strawbs, used both acoustic and electric dulcimers on several of the band’s albums.

Variants

As a folk instrument, Appalachian dulcimers come in many different forms.

Body Shapes: Dulcimers can have various body shapes, such as hourglass, teardrop, trapezoid, rectangular, elliptical (Galax-style), violin-shaped, fish-shaped, and lute-back. These shapes are described in a book called A Catalog of Pre-Revival Dulcimers.

Materials Used: Dulcimers are often made from plywood, laminates, or solid wood. Some builders use materials like carbon fiber. Cardboard is also used to make dulcimers. These are usually sold as low-cost kits. Cardboard dulcimers can produce clear sound and are durable, making them useful in places like elementary school classrooms.

Number of Strings: Dulcimers can have as few as two strings or as many as 12 strings (in up to six groups of strings). Before the 1960s, most mountain dulcimers had three strings. Today, the most common type has four strings in three groups, with two melody strings.

Sizes and Range: Dulcimers come in different sizes, which affect the range of pitches they can play. Larger dulcimers produce lower pitches, while smaller ones produce higher pitches.

• Baritone Dulcimer: These are larger versions of the regular tenor dulcimer, tuned to a lower pitch. They are usually tuned a fourth lower, such as A3-E3-A2.
• Bass Dulcimer: These are rare and very large, sometimes up to four feet long. They are tuned one octave lower than the baritone dulcimer, such as A2-E2-A1.
• Soprano or Piccolo Dulcimer: These are smaller dulcimers, about 80% to 50% the size of a regular tenor dulcimer. They are tuned a fourth higher, such as G4-D4-G3. Their smaller size makes them easier for children to play.
• Alto Dulcimer: Similar to the soprano dulcimer but larger, with a lower pitch.
• Other sizes, like contrabass dulcimers, have also been experimented with.

Other Variants:
– Courting Dulcimer: This type has one large body with two separate fingerboards. It is played by two people sitting facing each other, playing duets together.
– Double-Neck Dulcimer: Similar to a courting dulcimer, but both fingerboards face the same direction. This allows players to use different tunings without changing instruments. It was popularized by musician Bing Futch.
– Solid-Body Electric Dulcimer: Some dulcimers are made without a hollow body and use pickups to produce sound electronically.
– Aquavina: A dulcimer with a metal resonator partially filled with water. The water is moved while playing, creating unusual harmonic sounds.
– Bowed Dulcimer: Some dulcimers can be played with a bow. Modern versions are designed specifically for bowed playing.
– Guitar Dulcimer: A hybrid of a guitar and dulcimer, with a guitar-like body but dulcimer stringing. The strings are arranged differently, with lower strings on the left and higher strings on the right. This instrument was created by Homer Ledford and called the "dulcitar."
– Dulcitar (Stick Dulcimer or Strum-Stick): A long-necked instrument with a narrow body, similar to a guitar or mandolin. It has diatonic fretting like a dulcimer. The most common model is the McNally Strumstick.
– Banjo Dulcimer: Resembles a standard dulcimer but has a banjo-style head. This type was created by Homer Ledford and called the "dulcijo." Similar instruments include the "Ban-Jammer," "Banjimer," and "Banj-Mo." The "Dulci-Jo" is a hybrid with a thumb string, shaped like a banjo, and played upright.
– Resonator Dulcimer: A standard dulcimer with an added resonator, like a resonator guitar. This type was created by Homer Ledford and called the "dulcibro."