The bassoon is a musical instrument in the woodwind family that plays music in the tenor and bass ranges. It is made up of six parts and is usually made of wood. The bassoon is known for its unique sound, wide range of notes, ability to play many types of music, and skillful performance. It is a non-transposing instrument, meaning its music is written in the bass and tenor clefs, and sometimes in the treble clef. There are two types of modern bassoon: the Buffet (or French) system and the Heckel (or German) system. The bassoon is typically played while sitting using a seat strap, but it can also be played while standing if the musician uses a harness to hold the instrument. Sound is created by pressing both lips against the reed and blowing air to make the reed vibrate. The way the bassoon is played, called its fingering system, is more complex than on some other instruments. The modern bassoon appeared in the 19th century and is often used in orchestral, concert band, and chamber music. It is also sometimes played in pop, rock, and jazz music. A person who plays the bassoon is called a bassoonist.
Etymology
The word "bassoon" comes from the French word "basson" and the Italian word "bassone," which means "basso" (low) with the suffix "-one" added to emphasize the instrument's low pitch. These terms describe instruments that play in the bass, or low-pitched, range. In classical music, the bassoon is often called "fagotto" (plural: fagotti), a name that originally referred to the dulcian, an earlier type of instrument. The word "fagotto" was adopted in many European languages as "fagot," "fagote," or "Fagott" in German. It comes from an Old French word that meant "a bundle of sticks."
Characteristics
The bassoon's range starts at B flat below the bass staff (B♭1) and continues upward over three octaves, reaching approximately the G above the treble staff (G5). However, most music written for the bassoon rarely uses notes higher than C5 or D5. For example, Stravinsky's opening solo in The Rite of Spring reaches D5, while Ravel's Piano Concerto includes E5. Notes above this range are possible but rarely written because they are hard to play, often requiring special reed designs. These high notes also sound very similar to the same pitches on the cor anglais, which can play them more easily. The French bassoon has better ability to play very high notes, so some music written for it includes these notes more often. Music for French and German systems can be played on either without changes.
The bassoon's wide range of high notes and its frequent use as a tenor voice mean that tenor clef is often used in its music after the Baroque period. This helps avoid too many ledger lines. Starting in the 20th century, treble clef is also used for similar reasons.
Like other woodwind instruments, the bassoon has a fixed lowest note. However, with a special extension, it can play A1—see "Extended techniques" for details.
Although the bassoon's main tone holes produce notes a perfect fifth lower than other non-transposing woodwinds (an octave below the English horn), it is a non-transposing instrument. This means the notes played match the written pitch exactly.
Construction
The bassoon can be taken apart into six main parts, including the reed. These parts are: the bell (6), which extends upward; the bass joint (or long joint) (5), which connects the bell and the boot; the boot (or butt) (4), located at the bottom of the instrument and folding over on itself; the wing joint (or tenor joint) (3), which connects the boot to the bocal; and the bocal (or crook) (2), a curved metal tube that connects the wing joint to the reed (1).
The inside of the bassoon is shaped like a cone, similar to the oboe and saxophone. The two parts of the boot joint are joined at the bottom with a U-shaped metal piece. The inside of the instrument and the tone holes are carefully made with machines, and each bassoon is finished by hand to ensure it plays correctly. The walls of the bassoon are thicker in certain areas. In these places, the tone holes are drilled at an angle to the center of the instrument. This reduces the distance between the holes on the outside, making it easier for the average adult hand to cover them. A complex system of keys helps players reach the widely spaced holes. The total height of the bassoon is 1.34 meters (4 feet 5 inches), but the length of the air inside the instrument is 2.54 meters (8 feet 4 inches) because the tube is folded back on itself. Shorter bassoons are also made for young or small players.
Modern beginner bassoons are usually made of maple, with types like sycamore maple and sugar maple preferred. Less expensive models are sometimes made of materials like polypropylene and ebonite, often used for students or outdoor playing. Metal bassoons were made in the past but are no longer produced by major manufacturers since 1889.
Making reeds for the bassoon has been done for hundreds of years, with early reeds made for the dulcian, a predecessor of the bassoon. Today, reed-making follows basic steps, but reeds must often be customized to match a player’s style. Advanced players usually make their own reeds. Commercial reeds are available for purchase, but they often need adjustments to fit a player’s needs.
Modern bassoon reeds are made from Arundo donax cane. Many players make their own reeds, but beginners often buy reeds from professional makers or teachers. The process begins with cutting a piece of cane into three or four parts using a tool called a cane splitter. The cane is then trimmed and shaped to the right thickness, leaving the bark attached. After soaking, the cane is cut into the correct shape and shaped further by removing material from the bark side. This is often done with a machine. After soaking again, the cane is folded in the middle. Before soaking, the reed maker scores the bark with parallel lines using a knife to help the cane form into a cylinder.
On the bark side, the reed maker adds one, two, or three loops of brass wire to help shape the reed. The position of these loops may vary. The reed is then wrapped with thick cotton or linen thread for protection, and a conical steel rod (sometimes heated) is inserted between the blades. Using special pliers, the reed maker presses the cane to match the shape of the rod. The steam from the heated rod helps the cane keep this shape permanently. The top part of the reed, called the "throat," affects how the reed plays. The lower part is shaped with a tool called a reamer to fit the bocal.
After the reed dries, the wires are tightened or replaced. The bottom is sealed with a special glue and wrapped with thread to prevent air leaks and keep the reed’s shape. The wrapping is often sealed with glue, beeswax, or nail polish. Electrical tape is sometimes used by amateur reed makers. A bulge in the wrapping, called the "Turk’s head," helps hold the reed when attaching it to the bocal. Alternatively, hot glue, epoxy, or heat shrink wrap may be used. A wrapped section, called a "Turban," is more common in store-bought reeds.
To finish the reed, the center of the cane is cut off, creating an opening. The blades above the first wire are about 27–30 mm (1.1–1.2 inches) long. A slight slope must be cut at the tip with a knife, though a machine can do this. Adjustments may be needed based on the cane’s hardness and the player’s needs. The reed’s opening might be adjusted by tightening the first or second wire with pliers. Material can be removed from the sides or tip to balance the reed. If the note "e" in the bass clef is too low, the reed may be shortened by 1–2 mm (0.039–0.079 inches) using sharp scissors.
History
Music historians believe the dulcian is the ancestor of the modern bassoon, as both instruments share similar features: a double reed attached to a metal crook, tone holes drilled at an angle, and a cone-shaped hollow that bends back on itself. The dulcian’s origins are unclear, but by the mid-1500s, it came in eight sizes, from soprano to great bass. A full set of dulcians was rare, and its main role was to play the lowest notes in wind bands, either loud (like shawms) or soft (like recorders). This shows the dulcian could adjust its volume to match the band’s needs. However, the dulcian had limited technical features, with only eight finger holes and two keys, which meant it could play in only a few musical keys.
Evidence suggests the baroque bassoon was a new invention, not just a changed version of the dulcian. The dulcian was still used by composers like Bach into the 1700s, and many pieces from this time likely fit the dulcian’s limited range. Martin Hotteterre (died 1712) is believed to have developed the true bassoon. He may also have created the flute and oboe. Some historians think Hotteterre designed the bassoon in four parts (bell, bass joint, boot, and wing joint), which made it easier to shape the hollow compared to the one-piece dulcian. He also added two keys to extend the bassoon’s range down to B flat. Others suggest Hotteterre worked with other craftsmen, including family members and French makers of the time. No original French bassoon from this period survives, but early surviving bassoons from the 1680s resemble those made by Johann Christoph Denner and Richard Haka. Around 1700, a fourth key (G sharp) was added, and composers like Vivaldi, Bach, and Telemann wrote music for this instrument. A fifth key (low E flat) was added in the early 1700s. Notable makers of the 4-key and 5-key baroque bassoon include J.H. Eichentopf, J. Poerschmann, Thomas Stanesby Jr., G.H. Scherer, and Prudent Thieriot.
In the 1800s, larger concert halls and the rise of skilled performers led to further improvements in the bassoon. Better manufacturing and acoustical knowledge made the instrument easier to play.
Today, the modern bassoon exists in two main forms: the Buffet (or "French") system and the Heckel ("German") system. Most people worldwide use the Heckel system, while the Buffet system is mainly used in France, Belgium, and parts of Latin America. Other rare types, like the Galandronome, have also been made. In English-speaking countries, references to the modern bassoon usually mean the Heckel system, while the Buffet system is clearly noted when mentioned.
The modern bassoon’s design was greatly influenced by Carl Almenräder, a performer, teacher, and composer. With help from acoustics researcher Gottfried Weber, Almenräder created a 17-key bassoon capable of playing four octaves. He wrote about improving the instrument’s sound, responsiveness, and ease of playing in a 1823 treatise. His work at Schott allowed him to build and test new designs, which he shared in Schott’s journal, Caecilia. Almenräder continued his work until his death in 1846, and Beethoven requested one of his new instruments after reading about his research. In 1831, Almenräder left Schott to start his own factory with Johann Adam Heckel.
Heckel and his descendants refined the bassoon, making their instruments the standard. Their instruments had a better tone than Almenräder’s and competed with other designs, like the Wiener system and the saxophone-influenced bassoon. A later attempt to change the fingering system in 1893 failed. Other improvements, like a 24-key model and a single-reed mouthpiece, were abandoned due to poor tone.
By the 1900s, the Heckel-style German bassoon was the most common. Heckel made over 1,100 instruments by 1900, and British instruments were no longer preferred for orchestras, being used mainly in military bands.
Except for a brief wartime shift to making ball bearings in the 1940s, Heckel has continued producing instruments to today. Many consider Heckel bassoons the best, though other makers also produce Heckel-style instruments with slightly different playing features.
Because its mechanism is simpler than most modern woodwinds, some makers have tried to "reinvent" the bassoon. In the 1960s, Giles Brindley developed a "logical bassoon" with an electric mechanism to improve tone and intonation, but it was never sold.
The Buffet system bassoon developed its basic sound earlier than the Heckel system. It evolved more slowly, focusing on small improvements to the keys rather than major changes. This approach limited the Buffet’s consistency in sound and ease of playing compared to the Heckel, but some prefer its more vocal and expressive tone. In 1934, conductor John Foulds criticized the Heckel-style bassoon for sounding too similar to the horn. The modern Buffet system has 22 keys and the same range as the Heckel, but it plays higher notes (E5 and F5) more easily with less effort.
Compared to the Heckel, Buffet bassoons have a narrower hollow and simpler mechanism, requiring different fingerings for many notes. Switching between Heckel and Buffet instruments needs extensive retraining. French woodwinds, including the Buffet bassoon, often have a more vocal and "edgy" sound, which some composers have used effectively.
Use in ensembles
Before 1760, the early version of the bassoon was called the dulcian. It helped support the lowest notes in wind ensembles known as consorts. However, it was not often used in concert orchestras until the late 1600s, when double reed instruments became part of standard orchestral music. As the dulcian was used more often in basso continuo music, it began to appear in opera orchestras, such as those in works by Reinhard Keiser and Jean-Baptiste Lully. As the dulcian improved in design and musicians became more skilled with it, composers like Joseph Bodin de Boismortier, Johann Ernst Galliard, Johann Friedrich Fasch, and Georg Philipp Telemann wrote difficult solo and group music for the instrument. Antonio Vivaldi made the dulcian famous by including it in thirty-nine concertos.
Although the bassoon was still used to make the bass line clear because of its deep, rich sound, wind instruments became more versatile as technology improved during the Classical era. This allowed the bassoon to play in more musical keys than the dulcian. Joseph Haydn used this in his Symphony No. 45 ("Farewell Symphony"), where the bassoon plays in F-sharp minor. As musical techniques advanced, composers began using the bassoon for its unique sound, flexibility, and ability to perform complex music, not just for its ability to support the bass line. Composers like Ludwig van Beethoven, who wrote three Duos for Clarinet and Bassoon (WoO 27), and Niccolò Paganini, who composed duets for violin and bassoon, used the instrument in this way. In his Bassoon Concerto in B-flat major, K. 191, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart showed the full range of the bassoon’s expressive qualities, including its ability to play in different registers, use staccato notes, and produce a singing sound. This concerto is still considered one of the most important works in the bassoon’s repertoire.
The bassoon’s sound, which is similar to the human voice, along with its ability to perform complex music, made it popular during the Classical era. After 1730, the German bassoon could play up to B♭4, and the French version could reach even higher notes. Technological improvements also made the bassoon’s middle range sound richer, and playing in this range became more common, especially in Austro-Germanic music. Teachers like Josef Frohlich taught students to practice scales, thirds, and fourths, just as vocal students would. In 1829, he wrote that the bassoon could express emotions like dignity, solemnity, and tenderness. In a performance of Carl Maria von Weber’s Concerto for Bassoon in F Major, Op. 75, the bassoon was compared to the human voice. In France, Pierre Cugnier described the bassoon’s role as including not only supporting the bass line but also accompanying voices and harps, playing with clarinets and horns in Harmonie ensembles, and performing in many types of music, including concertos, which were more common than sonatas from earlier times. Both Cugnier and Étienne Ozi emphasized the bassoon’s ability to sound like a singing voice.
The bassoon’s role in orchestras changed depending on the country. In Viennese orchestras, the bassoon added depth by playing the same notes as other instruments like violins, as heard in Mozart’s overture to The Marriage of Figaro, K. 492. In this piece, the bassoon plays a technically demanding part alongside the strings. Mozart also wrote for the bassoon to change its tone depending on which instrument it was paired with: warmer with clarinets, hollow with flutes, and dark and dignified with violins. In Germany and Scandinavian countries, orchestras usually had only two bassoons. However, in France, orchestras increased the number to four by the late 1800s. In England, the bassoon’s role varied by ensemble. Johann Christian Bach wrote two concertos for solo bassoon, and the instrument was also used to support church choirs after most church organs were destroyed during the Puritan revolution. In the American colonies, the bassoon was often used in small groups. After the Revolutionary War, bassoonists were found in wind bands that performed publicly. By 1800, there was at least one bassoon in the United States Marine Band. In South America, the bassoon appeared in small orchestras, bands, and military ensembles similar to Harmonie groups.
During the Romantic era, the bassoon’s role changed from being a supportive bass instrument to a solo instrument capable of expressive, virtuosic performances. Composers often used the bassoon in many types of music. The comparison of the bassoon’s sound to the human voice continued during this time, as teaching methods focused on imitating singing. Giuseppe Verdi used the bassoon’s lyrical, singing quality to create emotion in his Messa da Requiem. Eugène Jancourt compared the use of vibrato on the bassoon to that of singers, and Luigi Orselli noted that the bassoon blended well with the human voice. He also described the bassoon’s role in French orchestras, which included supporting the viola, reinforcing staccato notes, and doubling the bass, clarinet, flute, and oboe. Composers began to highlight the bassoon’s unique staccato sound, which is short and sharp. For example, Hector Berlioz used staccato in his Symphonie fantastique, Op. 14, and Paul Dukas used it to depict two brooms coming to life in The Sorcerer’s Apprentice.
In German orchestras, it was common to have only two bassoons. Austrian and British military bands also used two bassoons, mainly for accompaniment and offbeat playing. In France, Hector Berlioz popularized using more than two bassoons, often writing for three or four, and sometimes for as many as eight, as in his l'Impériale.
At this time, composers expected the bassoon to perform as skillfully as other wind instruments, often writing challenging solos that tested the instrument’s range and technique. Examples include Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov’s bassoon solo and cadenza in Sheherazade, Op. 35, and Richard Wagner’s Tannhäuser, which required the bassoonist to use triple tonguing and reach the top of the instrument’s range at E5. Wagner also used the bassoon’s staccato ability and wrote parts in thirds to create a darker sound. In Modest Mussorgsky’s *Night on Bald
Technique
The bassoon is held diagonally in front of the player. Unlike the flute, oboe, and clarinet, it cannot be easily supported by the player’s hands alone. Extra support is usually needed. The most common methods include a seat strap attached to the base of the boot joint, which is placed across the chair before sitting. A neck strap or shoulder harness attached to the top of the boot joint is also used. Sometimes, a spike similar to those on a cello or bass clarinet is attached to the bottom of the boot joint and rests on the floor. A player can stand while playing if a neck strap or seat strap is tied to the belt. A balance hanger may also be used when standing. This device connects the instrument to the neck strap and helps shift the weight closer to the center of gravity, balancing the weight between the two hands.
Both hands are used to play the bassoon, with the left hand above the right. The front of the instrument has five main finger holes and a sixth activated by an open-standing key. Five additional keys on the front are controlled by the little fingers of each hand. The back of the instrument has twelve or more keys controlled by the thumbs, depending on the model.
To stabilize the right hand, many bassoonists use an adjustable, comma-shaped device called a "crutch" or hand rest. This is attached to the boot joint and secured with a thumb screw. The distance it extends from the instrument can be adjusted. Players rest the curve of the right hand, where the thumb meets the palm, against the crutch. This helps prevent fatigue and allows the fingers to stay flat on the holes and keys.
A technique unique to the bassoon is called "flicking." It involves the left hand thumb briefly pressing the high A, C, and D keys at the start of certain notes in the middle octave. This helps create smooth slurs from lower notes and prevents cracking, which is a brief, unintended sound that can occur. Another method, called "venting," uses the register key as part of the fingering instead of opening it at the start of a note. This is sometimes called the "European style" and slightly raises the pitch of the notes. Some players use flicking for A and B♭ when articulating notes for clarity. Flicking or venting is commonly used for slurring notes.
The "whisper key" is used for lower notes, such as those below middle C. The left thumb presses this key and holds it during the note. This prevents cracking, which can happen when low notes shift to a higher octave. Both flicking and the whisper key are important for proper note production during slurs between high and low registers.
Bassoons are usually tuned precisely at the factory, but players can adjust pitch using breath support, embouchure, and reed shape. Alternate fingerings can also change the pitch of many notes. The length of the bassoon can be adjusted to lower or raise the pitch. This is done by changing the bocal, which has numbers indicating its length (usually starting at 0 for the shortest and 3 for the longest). The bocal can also be slightly pushed in or out for rough pitch adjustments.
The embouchure, or the way the lips are shaped around the reed, is crucial for producing a full, rich sound on the bassoon. The lips are rolled over the teeth, with the upper lip often extending slightly beyond the lower lip. The lips apply pressure to the reed, controlling pitch and tone. The position of the lips on the reed affects the sound’s quality and how the reed responds to pressure.
The muscles used in the embouchure are mainly around the lips, which shape the reed for the desired sound. The jaw is adjusted to control the oral cavity, but jaw muscles are used less for vertical pressure than in single-reed instruments. However, some players may "bite" the reed with their jaw muscles, which can make the sound sharp or restricted.
In addition to the embouchure, players must develop strong muscles in the diaphragm, throat, neck, and upper chest. These muscles help control air pressure, which is vital for tone, pitch, and projection on double-reed instruments.
Using incorrect amounts of muscle or air pressure for a note can lead to poor intonation, cracking, or unintended sounds. This is further complicated by the inconsistent behavior of reeds, which vary due to both internal and external factors.
Because of these challenges, it takes time for bassoonists to develop an embouchure that works consistently across different reeds, dynamics, and environments.
The fingering technique for the bassoon varies widely between players more than any other orchestral woodwind. The instrument’s complex mechanism and acoustics mean some notes lack simple, high-quality fingerings, especially in the higher range. However, there are many complex, high-quality fingerings available for these notes. Simpler fingerings are often used for trills or alternate fingerings, while more complex ones are used for full notes. The choice of fingerings depends on the player, and some may experiment to find unique alternatives.
These differences in technique lead to significant variations in "full" and alternate fingerings between bassoonists. Factors such as cultural preferences, reed-making methods, and regional tuning standards also influence technique. While some regions may share similar techniques, globally, techniques can differ so much that two bassoonists may use no common fingerings for certain notes. Because of these factors, a universally standard technique for the bassoon is only partially notated.
The left thumb operates nine keys: B♭1, B1, C2, D2, D5, C5 (also B4), two keys that together create A4, and the whisper key. The whisper key should be held for notes between and including F2 and G♯3 and certain other notes. It may be omitted, but doing so can affect the pitch.