The classical guitar, also called the Spanish guitar, is a type of guitar used in classical music and other styles. It is an acoustic instrument made of wood with strings made from gut or nylon. It came before modern steel-string acoustic and electric guitars, which use metal strings. Classical guitars evolved from earlier instruments like the lute, vihuela, and gittern (a name from the Greek word "kithara"). These instruments developed into the Renaissance guitar and the baroque guitar of the 17th and 18th centuries. The modern classical guitar was created in the 19th century by a Spanish luthier named Antonio Torres Jurado.

For right-handed players, the traditional classical guitar has 12 frets that are not covered by the body. It is held with the left leg raised on a footrest, allowing the right hand to pluck or strum the strings near the back of the sound hole. This position is called the classical or sul ponticello position. The right hand can also move closer to the fretboard, called the sul tasto position, to create a different sound. Modern steel-string guitars usually have at least 14 frets clear of the body and are often held with a strap around the neck and shoulder.

The term "classical guitar" can sometimes refer to two other ideas besides the instrument itself. The term "modern classical guitar" is used to describe the current version of the instrument, distinguishing it from older types of guitars, which are also called classical or early guitars. Examples of early guitars include the six-string romantic guitar (about 1790–1880) and the five-course baroque guitars.

Classical guitars can be made with different materials and methods, but they typically have either the modern shape or a historic shape similar to early romantic guitars from Spain, France, and Italy. Strings that were once made of gut are now made of nylon or fluoropolymers, such as PVDF. The three lower-pitched strings (D, A, and low E) are usually wrapped with silver-plated copper wire.

The guitar family includes related instruments. The flamenco guitar comes from the modern classical guitar but has differences in materials, construction, and sound.

Contexts

The classical guitar has a long history. People can see different types of instruments and music connected to it. These include:

• Instruments
• Music (songs and pieces by composers, arrangements, and improvisations)

Both the instruments and the music can be studied from different points of view, such as:

Historical (time periods):
– Baroque guitar – from 1600 to 1750
– Early Romantic guitars – from 1750 to 1850 (used for music from the Classical and Romantic periods)
– Modern classical guitars

Types of guitars:
– Spanish guitars (like those made by Torres)
– French guitars (such as those made by René Lacôte)
– German guitars (such as those made by Herrmann Hauser)

Types of music:
– Baroque court music
– Music from 19th-century operas and their influences
– 19th-century folk songs
– Latin American music

Historical perspective

The term "classical guitar" is now most often linked to the modern design of the instrument. However, there is growing interest in older guitar styles and how they relate to the music written for them during their time. Musicologist Graham Wade explains that different guitar types produce different sound qualities. For example, the way sound energy spreads across the main note and its higher tones varies because of differences in how the instruments are built. Modern classical guitars usually use a type of internal support called fan-bracing, while earlier guitars used ladder-bracing. The way luthiers shaped the guitar's body also influenced its sound.

There is a connection between the styles of music from different periods (such as Baroque, Classical, Romantic, Flamenco, and Jazz) and the sound characteristics of the instruments used during those times. For example, Robert de Visée played a Baroque guitar with a unique sound that differs from the 19th-century guitars used by Mauro Giuliani and Luigi Legnani. These 19th-century guitars sound different from the Torres models used by Andrés Segovia, which are suited for Romantic and modern compositions, such as those by Moreno Torroba.

When studying the guitar's history, the instrument itself is as important as the music and style of the time. For example, it is not possible to play the music of Baroque composers like Robert de Visée or Corbetta on a modern classical guitar. This is because Baroque guitars used courses—pairs of strings played together—which created a distinct sound texture. The Baroque guitar's sound, with its strong presence of higher tones, is very different from the sound of modern classical guitars.

Today, Torres and post-Torres style guitars are often used for music from all historical periods. However, some critics argue that these instruments, with their fan-bracing and strong, thick tone, are better suited for modern music. They may not be ideal for older compositions, such as those from the Classical or Romantic periods (e.g., works by Carulli, Sor, Giuliani, Mertz) or the Baroque era (e.g., works by de Visée). Andrés Segovia helped popularize the Spanish guitar as a versatile instrument, but this has led some guitarists to focus only on the modern style associated with him.

At the start of the 20th century, both fan-braced modern guitars and older ladder-braced guitars were used. However, the older designs eventually became less common. Some believe this was due to Segovia's influence, as he promoted the Spanish design and the "modern" school of guitar playing in the 1920s. Meanwhile, in Germany, traditional ladder-braced guitars were linked to folk music styles like Schrammel-music and the Contraguitar, which later fell out of favor.

Francisco Tárrega, a 19th-century guitarist, helped popularize the Torres design as a solo instrument. However, Segovia's influence led to the Torres design becoming the dominant style. Factories around the world began producing these guitars in large numbers.

• Vihuela, Renaissance, and Baroque guitars have a bright sound with many higher tones. Their courses (pairs of strings) create a unique texture.
• Early Classical and Romantic period guitars have single strings but still emphasize higher tones, producing a bright, intimate sound.
• In Spain, a musical style emerged that favored a stronger main note. This led to the use of fan-bracing, changing the guitar's sound from transparent and rich in higher tones to a heavier, more "broad" tone with a strong main note.
• Modern guitars with fan-bracing have a thick, heavy sound, with most of their tonal energy focused on the main note.

Style periods

Composers from the Renaissance period who wrote music for the four-course guitar include Alonso Mudarra, Miguel de Fuenllana, Adrian Le Roy, Grégoire Brayssing, Guillaume de Morlaye, and Simon Gorlier.

Some well-known composers of the Baroque guitar were Gaspar Sanz, Robert de Visée, Francesco Corbetta, and Santiago de Murcia.

• A Baroque guitar made by Nicolas Alexandre Voboam II: This French instrument has five pairs of strings and a flat back, which was typical during the Baroque period.
• A Baroque guitar made by Matteo Sellas: This Italian instrument has five pairs of strings and a curved back.

Between about 1780 and 1850, many composers and performers played the guitar. These include:

• Filippo Gragnani (1767–1820)
• Antoine de Lhoyer (1768–1852)
• Ferdinando Carulli (1770–1841)
• Wenzel Thomas Matiegka (1773–1830)
• Francesco Molino (1774–1847)
• Fernando Sor (1778–1839)
• Luigi Moretti (c. 1780 – 1850)
• Mauro Giuliani (1781–1829)
• Niccolò Paganini (1782–1840)
• Dionisio Aguado (1784–1849)
• Luigi Legnani (1790–1877)
• Matteo Carcassi (1792–1853)
• Napoléon Coste (1805–1883)
• Johann Kaspar Mertz (1806–1856)
• Giulio Regondi (1822–1872)

Hector Berlioz studied the guitar as a teenager. Franz Schubert owned at least two guitars and wrote music for the instrument. Ludwig van Beethoven, after hearing Mauro Giuliani play, said the guitar was "a miniature orchestra in itself." Niccolò Paganini was also a skilled guitar player and composer. He once said, "I love the guitar for its harmony; it is my constant companion in all my travels." He also said, "I do not like this instrument, but regard it simply as a way of helping me to think."

The guitarist and composer Francisco Tárrega (November 21, 1852 – December 15, 1909) was one of the greatest guitar virtuosos and teachers. He is considered the father of modern classical guitar playing. As a professor of guitar at the conservatories of Madrid and Barcelona, he helped shape the techniques used in modern classical guitar music and raised the guitar's importance in classical music.

At the start of the 1920s, Andrés Segovia helped make the guitar more popular through tours and early recordings. Segovia worked with composers Federico Moreno Torroba and Joaquín Turroba to create new music for the guitar. His tour of South America increased public interest in the guitar and helped the music of Manuel Ponce and Heitor Villa-Lobos reach more people. Composers Alexandre Tansman and Mario Castelnuovo-Tedesco wrote new pieces for the guitar at Segovia's request. Luiz Bonfá helped spread Brazilian music styles, such as Bossa Nova, which became popular in the United States.

The classical guitar repertoire also includes modern works, sometimes called "New Music," such as Elliott Carter's Changes, Cristóbal Halffter's Codex I, Luciano Berio's Sequenza XI, Maurizio Pisati's Sette Studi, Maurice Ohana's Si Le Jour Paraît, Sylvano Bussotti's Rara (eco sierologico), Ernst Krenek's Suite für Guitarre allein, Op. 164, Franco Donatoni's Algo: Due pezzi per chitarra, Paolo Coggiola's Variazioni Notturne, and others.

Performers who play modern guitar music include Jürgen Ruck, Elena Càsoli, Leo Brouwer (when he was still performing), John Schneider, Reinbert Evers, Maria Kämmerling, Siegfried Behrend, David Starobin, Mats Scheidegger, Magnus Andersson, and others.

This type of music is usually played by guitarists who focus on performing avant-garde styles.

Within modern music, some works are known for being extremely difficult. These include Brian Ferneyhough's Kurze Schatten II, Sven-David Sandström's away from, and Rolf Riehm's Toccata Orpheus, among others.

There are also many databases that list modern guitar compositions, such as Sheer Pluck and others.

Background

The classical guitar and the music it plays have a history that lasted over 400 years. This history was influenced by earlier instruments, such as the lute, the vihuela, and the baroque guitar.

— Bernard Hebb, Interview

History

The exact beginning of the modern guitar is not known for sure. Some people think it started in Europe, while others believe it came from another place. Ancient carvings and statues from Egypt, Sumer, and Babylon show instruments that look like guitars. This means that modern Iranian instruments such as the tanbur and setar are related to the European guitar, but they developed through different paths and influences over time. Instruments called "guitars" were used as early as the 13th century, but they had different shapes and were tuned differently than today's guitars. The most important changes to the guitar happened between the 1500s and 1800s.

Alonso de Mudarra’s book Tres Libros de Música, published in Spain in 1546, includes the earliest written music for a four-string guitar called a guitarra. This instrument was popular in France, Spain, and Italy. In France, it became a favorite among wealthy people. Many music books were published in Paris between the 1550s and 1570s, including works by Simon Gorlier, Adrian Le Roy, and others. These musicians helped expand the music played on the four-string guitar.

The written history of the classical guitar begins in the early 1600s with the development of the vihuela in Spain. While the lute was popular in other parts of Europe, the Spanish did not like it because of its connection to the Moors. Instead, they created the vihuela, a lute-like instrument with two extra strings that made it more versatile. In its final form, the vihuela had six pairs of strings made of gut, tuned like a modern classical guitar except for the third string, which was slightly lower. It was large and produced a bright sound. Few of these instruments remain today, and most information about them comes from drawings and paintings.

The earliest known six-string guitar was made in 1779 by Gaetano Vinaccia in Naples, Italy. However, the date on the instrument is unclear. The Vinaccia family was known for making mandolins. This guitar shows no signs of being modified from a different type of instrument. Many guitars claimed to be older than the 1790s are often questioned for their authenticity. This time also marks when Moretti’s six-string guitar method was published in 1792.

The modern classical guitar was developed in the 19th century by Antonio de Torres Jurado, Ignacio Fleta, Hermann Hauser Sr., and Robert Bouchet. Antonio de Torres, a Spanish craftsman and player, designed the modern classical guitar with a larger body, a more curved waist, a thinner top, and better internal support. This guitar replaced an older version used for singing and dancing called flamenco, and a modified version, the flamenco guitar, was later created.

American classical guitar music has its own unique history within the classical guitar tradition in the United States. It combines European classical techniques with elements from American folk, blues, and other local styles. Early pioneers like Justin Holland and William Foden helped start this tradition, while later musicians such as Aaron Shearer, Christopher Parkening, and Jason Vieaux influenced how the guitar is played, taught, and used in America. For more details about this history, refer to the article on American Classical Guitar Music.

The modern classical guitar often uses a playing style called fingerstyle. The thumb of the right hand typically plucks the bass notes, while the fingers play the melody and other parts. Many players use their fingernails to pluck the strings. Famous players who used this technique include Francisco Tárrega, Emilio Pujol, Andrés Segovia, Julian Bream, Agustín Barrios, and John Williams.

Performance

The modern classical guitar is usually played while sitting, with the instrument resting on the left lap and the left foot placed on a footstool. If a footstool is not used, a guitar support can be placed between the guitar and the left lap. The support typically attaches to the side of the instrument using suction cups. Some performers may hold the instrument differently, but this is not common.

Right-handed players use the fingers of the right hand to pluck the strings. The thumb plucks the strings from the top downward (a downstroke), while the other fingers pluck from the bottom upward (an upstroke). In classical guitar technique, the little finger moves along with the ring finger without striking the strings, helping the ring finger move more easily.

In contrast, Flamenco guitar technique and classical music inspired by Flamenco use the little finger to play independently. This is especially true in the Flamenco "rasgueado" technique, where the fingers rapidly strum the strings in reverse order, using the back of the fingernail. This method is also seen in a technique called "dedillo" from the vihuela, which has recently been used on the classical guitar.

Flamenco technique also uses the upstroke of the four fingers and the downstroke of the thumb. The string is struck with both the inner, fleshy side of the fingertip and the outer, fingernail side. This method is also used by some modern guitarists, such as Štěpán Rak and Kazuhito Yamashita, who use the little finger independently. They maintain long fingernails to compensate for the little finger’s short length and use the same upstroke and downstroke technique for both free strokes and rest strokes.

Like other plucked instruments, such as the lute, the musician touches the strings directly (usually by plucking) to create sound. This allows for different tones or sounds (called timbre) by plucking the string in different ways (apoyando or tirando) and in different positions (such as near or far from the guitar bridge). For example, plucking an open string (without pressing it down) produces a brighter sound than plucking the same note on a fretted position, which sounds warmer.

The classical guitar’s versatility allows it to create many different tones, but this finger-picking style makes it harder to learn than the strumming technique used on a standard acoustic guitar.

In guitar sheet music, the five fingers of the right hand (which pluck the strings) are labeled using the first letter of their Spanish names: p = thumb (pulgar), i = index finger (índice), m = middle finger (mayor), a = ring finger (anular), and c = little finger or pinky (meñique/chiquito).

The four fingers of the left hand (which press the strings to create notes) are labeled as follows: 1 = index, 2 = middle, 3 = ring, and 4 = little finger. The number 0 indicates an open string, which is not pressed down and vibrates fully when plucked. It is rare to use the left hand’s thumb during performances because the guitar’s neck is too wide for comfort. However, some musicians, like Johann Kaspar Mertz, have used the thumb to press notes on the sixth string, marked with an up arrow (⌃).

Sheet music (unlike tablatures) does not always show which string to pluck, though it is usually clear. When needed, the string number (1 to 6, from highest to lowest pitch) is written inside a circle.

Sheet music does not always show where to place the fingers on the fretboard, but it may use Roman numerals to indicate positions, especially for "barré" chords. For example, I represents the first position (index finger on the first fret), and XII represents the twelfth position (index finger on the twelfth fret). The classical guitar typically has 19 frets, with the 19th fret often split and not usable for the third and fourth strings.

To create fast, smooth scale passages or tremolo effects, players must practice alternating fingers—never plucking the same string twice in a row with the same finger. Common patterns include:

• i-m-i-m: A basic melody line on the treble strings, often used for playing scales.
• p-i-m-a-i-m-a: An example of an arpeggio pattern, though many variations exist in classical guitar music.
• p-a-m-i-p-a-m-i: A tremolo pattern used in classical guitar.
• p-m-p-m: A way to play a melody line on the lower strings.

Repertoire

Music written specifically for the classical guitar began in the late 18th century, when the sixth string was added to the guitar. Before this, the baroque guitar usually had five pairs of strings.

A guitar recital may include many types of music. For example, some pieces were originally written for the lute or vihuela by composers like John Dowland (born in England in 1563) and Luis de Narváez (born in Spain around 1500). Other works were written for the harpsichord by Domenico Scarlatti (born in Italy in 1685), for the baroque lute by Sylvius Leopold Weiss (born in Germany in 1687), for the baroque guitar by Robert de Visée (born in France around 1650), or for the piano by Spanish composers Isaac Albéniz (born in Spain in 1860) and Enrique Granados (born in Spain in 1867). Johann Sebastian Bach (born in Germany in 1685) is a composer who did not write for the guitar, but his music for the lute, violin, and cello is often played on the guitar.

The earliest important composers who wrote music specifically for the guitar were from the classical period. These composers include Fernando Sor (born in Spain in 1778) and Mauro Giuliani (born in Italy in 1781), whose styles were influenced by the music of Vienna. In the 19th century, composers like Johann Kaspar Mertz (born in Slovakia and Austria in 1806) were influenced by the popularity of the piano. It was not until the end of the 19th century that the guitar began to develop its own unique identity. Francisco Tárrega (born in Spain in 1852) played a key role in this, often using musical elements inspired by the Moorish culture in flamenco music. This style was part of a larger movement in European music called nationalism. Albéniz and Granados were important figures in this movement, and their music is now part of the standard guitar repertoire.

Steel-string and electric guitars, which became popular with rock and roll music after World War II, were widely played in North America and English-speaking countries. Agustín Barrios Mangoré of Paraguay and Heitor Villa-Lobos of Brazil helped bring Latin American music into the mainstream. Andrés Segovia worked with Spanish composers like Federico Moreno Torroba and Joaquín Rodrigo, Italian composers like Mario Castelnuovo-Tedesco, and Latin American composers like Manuel Ponce of Mexico. Other important Latin American composers include Leo Brouwer and Yalil Guerra of Cuba, Antonio Lauro of Venezuela, and Enrique Solares of Guatemala. Julian Bream of Britain encouraged many British composers, including William Walton, Benjamin Britten, and Peter Maxwell Davies, to write music for the guitar. His work with tenor Peter Pears also led to song cycles by composers like Britten and Lennox Berkeley. Other composers who wrote for the guitar include Hans Werner Henze of Germany, Gilbert Biberian of England, and Roland Chadwick of Australia.

The classical guitar became widely used in popular music and rock & roll in the 1960s after guitarist Mason Williams popularized the instrument in his song "Classical Gas." Christopher Parkening, a famous guitarist, said in the book Classical Gas: The Music of Mason Williams that "Classical Gas" is the most requested guitar piece besides "Malagueña" and is one of the most well-known instrumental guitar pieces today. In the field of New Flamenco, the work of Spanish composer and musician Paco de Lucía is known worldwide.

Few classical guitar concertos were written throughout history. However, some are now widely known and popular, such as Joaquín Rodrigo’s Concierto de Aranjuez (with the famous theme from the second movement) and Fantasía para un gentilhombre. Other composers who wrote famous guitar concertos include Antonio Vivaldi (originally for mandolin or lute), Mauro Giuliani, Heitor Villa-Lobos, Mario Castelnuovo-Tedesco, Manuel Ponce, Leo Brouwer, Lennox Berkeley, and Malcolm Arnold. Today, more contemporary composers are writing guitar concertos, such as Bosco Sacro by Federico Biscione, which is for guitar and string orchestra.

Physical characteristics

The classical guitar has several unique features:

• It is an acoustic instrument. The sound from plucked strings is made louder by the guitar’s soundboard and hollow body.
• It has six strings, though some have seven or more strings.
• All six strings are made of nylon or nylon wrapped with metal, unlike the metal strings on other guitars. Nylon strings have much less tension than steel strings, as do older gut strings made from animal intestines. The three lowest strings (bass strings) are wrapped with metal, often silver-plated copper.
• Because of the low string tension, the neck can be made entirely of wood without a steel truss rod. The internal bracing can also be lighter.
• Modern six-string classical guitars are 48–54 mm wide at the nut, compared to about 42 mm for electric guitars.
• Classical fingerboards are usually flat and lack inlaid fret markers, or have small dot markers on the neck’s side. Steel-string fingerboards often have a slight curve and inlays.
• Classical guitarists use their right hand to pluck the strings. Some shape their fingernails for a brighter sound and better contact with the strings.
• Strumming is less common in classical guitar and is called "rasgueo" in Spanish. This technique uses the backs of the fingernails and is important in Flamenco guitar.
• The machine heads on a classical guitar point backward, unlike most steel-string guitars, where they point outward.
• Classical guitars look similar to Flamenco guitars, which are slightly smaller and lighter.

Parts of a classical guitar include:

• Headstock
• Nut
• Machine heads (also called pegheads, tuning keys, or tuners)
• Frets
• Neck
• Heel
• Body
• Bridge
• Bottom deck
• Soundboard
• Body sides
• Sound hole with a rosette inlay
• Strings
• Saddle (bridge nut)
• Fretboard

The fretboard (also called the fingerboard) is a wooden strip with metal frets that forms the top of the neck. It is flat or slightly curved. The curve is measured by the fretboard radius, which is the radius of a circle that matches the fretboard’s shape. A smaller radius means the fretboard is more curved. Fretboards are most often made of ebony, but may also be made of rosewood, other hardwoods, or phenolic composite ("micarta").

Frets are metal strips (usually nickel alloy or stainless steel) embedded along the fingerboard. They divide the string length into equal parts, creating different pitches. Each fret is spaced a half-step apart on the 12-tone scale. The ratio of the widths of two consecutive frets is the twelfth root of two (about 1.059463). The twelfth fret divides the string into two equal parts, and the 24th fret (if present) divides it again. Every 12 frets make one octave. This arrangement creates equal tempered tuning.

A classical guitar’s neck includes the frets, fretboard, tuners, and headstock. The wood used for the fretboard is often different from the rest of the neck. The neck experiences significant stress, especially with heavier strings. The most common scale length for classical guitars is 650 mm (measured from the nut to the 12th fret and doubled). Scale lengths may vary from 635–664 mm or more.

The neck connects to the body. In traditional Spanish guitars, the neck and block are one piece with the sides inserted into slots. Other guitars use separate necks joined with dovetail, mortise, or flush joints. These joints are usually glued and sometimes reinforced with mechanical fasteners. Some modern guitars use bolt-on necks, which were once seen as lower quality but are now used by top manufacturers. Some believe that traditional one-piece necks provide better sound, but tests have not confirmed this. Fleta, a Spanish luthier, used a dovetail joint due to his violin-making background. Mechanical joints make repairs easier, which is more important for steel-string guitars with higher tension. Nylon-string guitars often lack truss rods because of their lower tension.

The body of the guitar greatly affects its sound. The soundboard (top) is made of spruce or red cedar and is a key factor in the guitar’s tone. It is thin (2–3 mm) and strengthened by internal bracing. The back is often made of rosewood, though other woods like mahogany may be used. The back and sides are reinforced with bracing and decorated with inlays. Antonio de Torres Jurado showed that the soundboard, not the back and sides, is the main source of sound. In 1862, he built a guitar with papier-mâché back and sides, which is now in the Museu de la Musica in Barcelona.

The body acts as a resonating chamber, amplifying the vibrations through a sound hole. The sound hole is usually a single round opening on the top, though other designs exist. The amount of air the instrument can move determines its maximum volume.

The top, back, and sides of the body are thin, so a flexible wood called kerfing is glued into the corners where the rim meets the top and back. This reinforcement provides a solid gluing area for the joints.

During final construction, small sections of the outside corners are carved or routed out and filled.

Tuning

A variety of tunings are used for the guitar. The most common tuning, often called "standard tuning," is:

• e – b – g – d – A – E

The order listed above shows the tuning from the 1st string (the highest-pitched string, e'—which is the bottom string when held for playing) to the 6th string (the lowest-pitched string, E—which is the top string when held for playing and easiest to pluck with the thumb).

The reason for this "unbalanced" tuning (since the major third is not between the two middle strings, unlike the tuning of the viola da gamba) is likely because the guitar began as a 4-string instrument (with four pairs of strings, as explained earlier). Over time, a fifth and then a sixth string were added, each tuned a fourth apart:

"The development of the modern tuning happened in stages. One tuning from the 16th century was C-F-A-D. This is the same as the top four strings of the modern guitar, but tuned a tone lower. However, the actual pitch of these notes was not the same as modern "concert pitch." The tuning of the four-string guitar was raised by a tone, and by the end of the 16th century, five-string instruments were used, with an added lower string tuned to A. This created A-D-G-B-E, one of many tunings used during that time. The low E string was added during the 18th century."

This tuning ensures that neighboring strings are no more than 5 semitones apart. There are also many other tunings used, such as "Drop D" tuning, where the 6th string is tuned down from E to D.