Classical music refers to the formal, written music of the Western world, which is different from folk or popular music. It is sometimes called Western classical music because the term "classical music" can also describe non-Western art music. Classical music is known for its structured forms, complex harmonies, and use of polyphony, where multiple independent melodies are played at the same time. Since the ninth century, it has been mostly written down, leading to the development of detailed musical notation and related written works in fields like music analysis, history, and philosophy.
Early medieval music was mostly religious, simple in melody, and vocal. The oldest surviving music manuscripts come from the Carolingian Empire (800–887), around the time Western plainchant became known as Gregorian chant. Important musical centers included the Abbey of Saint Gall, the Abbey of Saint Martial, and Saint Emmeram's Abbey. By the 11th century, staff notation was developed, and more music theorists began writing about music. By the mid-12th century, France became the main European musical center. Religious music at the Notre-Dame school explored organized rhythms and polyphony, while secular music grew through troubadour and trouvère traditions led by poet-musicians. This led to the court-sponsored French ars nova and Italian Trecento styles, which later evolved into ars subtilior, known for its varied rhythms. In the early 15th century, Renaissance composers of the Franco-Flemish School improved on harmonic ideas from the English contenance angloise, raising the standard of choral music, especially in masses and motets. Northern Italy became the central musical region, where the Roman School developed highly complex polyphony in genres like the madrigal, inspiring the English Madrigal School.
The Baroque period (1580–1750) brought standardization to common-practice tonality and increased use of musical instruments in large ensembles. Italy remained a musical leader, being the birthplace of opera, the concerto, the sonata, and large-scale vocal forms like the oratorio and cantata. Johann Sebastian Bach's use of the fugue technique showed the Baroque love for complexity, leading to simpler styles like galant music and empfindsamkeit. During the Classical period (1750–1820), composers like Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Joseph Haydn, and Ludwig van Beethoven created admired works such as symphonies, string quartets, and concertos. The Romantic period (1800–1910) focused on programmatic music, using forms like the art song, symphonic poem, and piano pieces. This era celebrated skill, grandeur, and themes like philosophy and nationalism, seen in the operas of Richard Wagner.
By the 20th century, musical styles became more diverse, and popular music gained more attention. Many composers avoided traditional techniques in favor of modernism, some abandoning tonality for serialism, while others used folk melodies or impressionist ideas. After World War II, audiences began preferring older music, leading to the growth of commercial recordings. Mid-20th century trends include New Simplicity, New Complexity, Minimalism, Spectral music, and Postmodern and Postminimalist styles. Today, musicians from around the world play important roles, and symphony orchestras and opera houses are found globally.
Terminology and definition
The word "classical" in English and the German word "Klassik" both come from the French word "classique," which was based on the Latin word "classicus." In ancient Rome, "classicus" referred to the highest class of citizens. Over time, the term was used to describe respected writers, such as Demosthenes and Virgil, who were praised by the Roman writer Aulus Gellius. By the Renaissance, "classique" had a broader meaning, as seen in Randle Cotgrave's 1611 dictionary, which defined it as "formal, orderly, in proper rank; also, approved, authentic, chief, principal." Musicologist Daniel Heartz later summarized this as two ideas: "formal discipline" and "model of excellence." During the Renaissance, Latin-speaking scholars used "classicus" to refer to writers from classical antiquity, but this meaning developed slowly and was not always the main focus. Literature and visual arts adopted the term "classical" to describe works from ancient Greece and Rome, but Renaissance musicians had little access to music from that time, limiting the connection between classical music and the Greco-Roman world.
In 18th-century England, the term "classical" began to mean a specific group of musical works that were performed. London had a growing public concert scene, which was unique compared to other European cities. The royal court no longer had control over music, partly because of political changes like the Glorious Revolution. In 1672, John Banister, a former court musician, started giving public concerts at a London tavern, which helped popularize public concerts. The idea of "classical" music, or "ancient music," emerged, still based on the principles of formality and excellence. Heartz noted that civic rituals, religion, and moral activism influenced how people viewed musical taste during this time. Specialized performances of such music were held by groups like the Academy of Ancient Music and the Concerts of Antient Music, which featured works by composers like George Frideric Handel. In France, under King Louis XIV, writers such as Molière and Jean Racine were considered to have surpassed the achievements of classical antiquity, and their music, like that of Jean-Baptiste Lully, was labeled "l'opéra française classique." In other parts of Europe, the idea of "classical" being linked to the Greco-Roman world took longer to develop, as canonical musical repertoires were either limited or focused on the upper classes.
In the early 19th century, European commentators began to define "classical music" more clearly, grouping older composers like Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Joseph Haydn, and Ludwig van Beethoven (excluding some of his later works) as "classical" and contrasting them with the new Romantic style. These composers were part of the First Viennese School, though none were born in Vienna, and Haydn and Mozart spent little time there. This grouping was not always strict. In 1879, composer Charles Kensington Salaman listed Bach, Handel, Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, Weber, Spohr, and Mendelssohn as classical composers. Some writers used "classical" to praise well-regarded works from various composers, especially those who created many pieces in established genres.
Today, the term "classical music" is still complex and has many meanings. It is often used interchangeably with terms like "art music," "canonic music," "cultivated music," and "serious music." The term usually refers to Western music, but in academic writing, "Western music" sometimes excludes non-classical Western styles. Additionally, "classical music" can describe non-Western art music with similar long-lasting and complex traits, such as Indian classical music, Gamelan music, and Chinese court music (like yayue). To address this, terms like "Western classical music" and "Western art music" were introduced in the late 20th century. Musicologist Ralph P. Locke notes that these terms are not perfect, as they can create confusion when discussing Western-art music practitioners from non-Western backgrounds.
Classical music is known for its complex structure and harmonic organization. The Oxford English Dictionary defines "classical" in relation to music as: 1) "of acknowledged excellence," 2) "of, relating to, or characteristic of a formal musical tradition, as distinguished from popular or folk music," and 3) "of or relating to formal European music of the late 18th and early 19th centuries, characterized by harmony, balance, and adherence to established compositional forms." The third definition refers to the Classical period, a specific era in European music from the second half of the 18th century to the early 19th century.
History
The Western classical music tradition began with music created for the early Christian Church. The Church likely wanted to stay separate from the music of ancient Greece and Rome because it reminded people of the pagan religion that had persecuted Christians and was also persecuted by them. It is unclear how much the music of the Christian Church, and later Western classical music, was influenced by ancient Greek and Roman music. However, the attitude toward music was shaped by Greek and Roman music theorists. Just like in ancient times, music was considered important for education and was part of the quadrivium, which included music, arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy. Scholars like Cassiodorus, Isidore of Seville, and especially Boethius helped spread ideas about music from earlier thinkers like Pythagoras, Aristotle, and Plato. However, medieval musicians often misunderstood ancient writings because they had no surviving examples of Greco-Roman music. Isidore of Seville once said that sounds disappear if not remembered, not knowing that ancient Greeks had developed ways to write music. Musicologist Gustave Reese noted that medieval musicians still read ancient texts, even if they did not always understand them correctly.
Some musical traditions from the ancient world continued into the medieval period. Both ancient civilizations and early medieval music used single melodies, improvisation, and focused on text. Greek influences include church modes, which came from ideas by Aristoxenus and Pythagoras, and the use of tetrachords, which are groups of four notes. Instruments like the aulos (a reed instrument) and the lyre (a stringed instrument) led to modern orchestra instruments. However, Donald Jay Grout said that connecting ancient music directly to medieval music is not accurate, as medieval music was mainly influenced by Greco-Roman music theory, not performance practices.
Medieval music includes European music from after the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 until about 1400. Monophonic chant, also called plainsong or Gregorian chant, was the main type of music until around 1100. Christian monks created the first European musical notation to standardize church services. Later, polyphonic music (with multiple voices) developed from monophonic chant during the Middle Ages and Renaissance, including complex forms like motets. Early medieval music was mostly monophonic, with one voice singing without accompaniment. By the 13th and 14th centuries, polyphonic music became common. Notable medieval composers include Hildegard of Bingen, Léonin, Pérotin, Philippe de Vitry, Guillaume de Machaut, Francesco Landini, and Johannes Ciconia.
Many medieval instruments still exist in different forms today. Instruments like the flute, recorder, and lute (a plucked string instrument) were used. Early versions of the organ and fiddle (vielle) also existed. Medieval instruments were often played alone or with a drone note, or in small groups. From the 13th to 15th centuries, instruments were divided into "haut" (loud, outdoor instruments) and "bas" (quiet, indoor instruments). Some medieval instruments, like the Arabic rebab, influenced European bowed string instruments such as the lira, rebec, and violin.
The Renaissance music era lasted from 1400 to 1600. It was marked by more use of instruments, complex melodies, and early bass instruments. Social dancing became popular, leading to music forms that matched dance rhythms. During this time, musical notation on a staff system developed, allowing music to be written down and performed without the composer being present. The invention of the printing press in the 15th century helped spread music more widely.
Many instruments were created or improved during the Renaissance. Instruments like the slide trumpet, wooden cornet, and sackbut were used by professional musicians in guilds. Stringed instruments included the viol, rebec, lute, and harp-like lyre. Keyboard instruments like the harpsichord and clavichord existed. Percussion instruments included the triangle, Jew's harp, and drums. Woodwind instruments included the shawm (an early oboe), flute, and recorder. Simple pipe organs were used mainly in churches. Printing helped standardize instrument descriptions and teaching methods.
Vocal music in the Renaissance became more complex, with polyphonic styles. Masses and motets were important religious forms, and later, composers used secular styles like madrigals. By the late Renaissance, early forms of opera, such as monody and madrigal comedy, began to appear. In 1597, Jacopo Peri wrote Dafne, the first work called an opera, and Euridice, the first surviving opera.
Notable Renaissance composers include Josquin des Prez, Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina, John Dunstaple, Johannes Ockeghem, Orlande de Lassus, Guillaume Du Fay, Gilles Binchois, Thomas Tallis, William Byrd, Giovanni Gabrieli, Carlo Gesualdo, John Dowland, Jacob Obrecht, Adrian Willaert, Jacques Arcadelt, Cipriano de Rore, and Francesco da Milano.
Performance
Performers who have studied classical music a lot are called "classically trained." This training can come from private lessons with teachers for instruments or voice, or from completing a structured program at a Conservatory, college, or university, such as earning a Bachelor of Music or Master of Music degree (which includes lessons with professors). In classical music, "a lot of formal music education and training, often to a postgraduate level (Master's degree)" is usually needed.
Playing classical music requires skills like reading sheet music quickly, playing with a group, understanding how notes work together, being able to adjust pitches by ear, knowing how music was performed in the past (like Baroque-style decorations), and understanding the style expected for a specific composer or piece (such as a Brahms symphony or a Mozart concerto).
A key feature of European classical music that sets it apart from popular music, folk music, and other traditions like Indian classical music is that the music is usually written in musical notes. This written music, called a score, shows details like rhythm, pitch, and how different parts are played together when multiple musicians are involved. The written nature of the music allows for complex compositions, such as fugues, which combine different melodies in a way that creates harmony. Written music also helps preserve compositions so that musicians today can perform music from many years ago.
Although classical music today rarely includes musical improvisation, from the Baroque era to the Romantic era, some performers could improvise in the style of their time. In the Baroque era, organ players would improvise preludes, and harpsichord players would create chords based on symbols in the bass part. Both singers and instrumentalists would add musical decorations. Johann Sebastian Bach was especially known for his complex improvisations. In the Classical era, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart was famous for creating melodies on the spot in different styles. Some skilled soloists would improvise the cadenza sections of a concerto during this time. In the Romantic era, Ludwig van Beethoven was known for his piano improvisations.
Relationship to other music traditions
Classical music has sometimes used parts of popular music from the same time period. For example, Brahms included student drinking songs in his Academic Festival Overture. Another example is Kurt Weill's The Threepenny Opera, which mixes classical and popular styles. Jazz also influenced classical composers like Maurice Ravel, as seen in the "Blues" movement of his violin and piano sonata. Later composers, such as those in the postmodern and minimalist styles, have also acknowledged the influence of popular music.
George Gershwin's 1924 piece Rhapsody in Blue is often called orchestral jazz or symphonic jazz. It blends classical music with jazz-style sounds.
There are also cases where popular music has been influenced by classical music. For example, many songs have used themes from classical works, such as Pachelbel's Canon, which has been used in popular music since the 1970s. Some classical musicians have also found success in popular music, such as in the heavy metal genre. Guitarists like Ritchie Blackmore and Randy Rhoads used playing styles inspired by Baroque or Classical-era music.
Classical composers have also used folk music, which is often created by musicians who are not trained in classical traditions and is passed down orally. Composers like Dvořák and Smetana used folk themes to give their music a national character. Bartók used specific folk melodies directly in his work. Khachaturian included Armenian folk music, as well as music from other Middle Eastern and Eastern European groups, in his compositions.
Commercialization
Some well-known pieces from classical music are often used in advertisements or movie soundtracks. In television commercials, certain parts of these pieces are now commonly used, such as the beginning of Richard Strauss's "Also sprach Zarathustra" (famous from the movie 2001: A Space Odyssey) and the opening of "O Fortuna" from Carl Orff's Carmina Burana. Other examples include the "Dies irae" from Verdi's Requiem, Edvard Grieg's "In the Hall of the Mountain King" from Peer Gynt, the first notes of Beethoven's Symphony No. 5, Aram Khachaturian's "Sabre Dance," Wagner's "Ride of the Valkyries" from Die Walküre, Rimsky-Korsakov's "Flight of the Bumblebee," and parts of Aaron Copland's Rodeo. Some animated films from the Golden Age of Animation used classical music to match the action, such as Walt Disney's Fantasia, Tom and Jerry's Johann Mouse, and Warner Bros.' Rabbit of Seville and What's Opera, Doc?
Movies and television also use familiar parts of classical music to show elegance or luxury. Commonly used pieces include Bach's Cello Suite No. 1, Mozart's Eine kleine Nachtmusik, Vivaldi's The Four Seasons, Mussorgsky's Night on Bald Mountain (as arranged by Rimsky-Korsakov), and Rossini's William Tell Overture. Shawn Vancour suggests that the use of classical music in advertisements during the 1920s may have affected the music industry.
Education
During the 1990s, many research papers and books discussed a phenomenon called the "Mozart effect." This refers to a temporary, small increase in scores on tests that measure spatial reasoning after listening to Mozart's music. The idea became widely known after a book by Don Campbell and an experiment published in the journal Nature, which suggested that listening to Mozart temporarily increased students' IQ scores by 8 to 9 points. A writer for the New York Times, Alex Ross, summarized the theory by stating, "researchers… have determined that listening to Mozart actually makes you smarter." Some companies sold CDs claiming they could create this effect. In Florida, a law was passed requiring toddlers in state-run schools to listen to classical music daily. In 1998, the governor of Georgia included $105,000 in the yearly budget to give every child born in Georgia a tape or CD of classical music. One of the researchers who helped write the original studies of the Mozart effect said, "I don't think it can hurt. I'm all for exposing children to wonderful cultural experiences. But I do think the money could be better spent on music education programs."