A mandolin is a stringed musical instrument in the lute family. It is usually played by plucking the strings with a pick. The mandolin most often has four pairs of strings, which are tuned to the same note, making a total of eight strings. Many types of strings are used, but steel strings are the most common and usually the least expensive. The pairs of strings are typically tuned in intervals called perfect fifths, just like a violin (G3, D4, A4, E5). Like the violin, the mandolin is the highest-pitched instrument in a family that includes the mandola, octave mandolin, mandocello, and mandobass.

There are many types of mandolins, but the three most common are the Neapolitan or round-backed mandolin, the archtop mandolin, and the flat-backed mandolin. The round-backed mandolin has a deep, bowl-shaped body made from strips of wood glued together. The archtop mandolin, also called the carved-top mandolin, has a curved top and a shallower, curved back, both carved from wood. The flat-backed mandolin uses thin wood sheets for its body, which are braced inside for strength, similar to a guitar. Each type of mandolin has a unique sound and is used in different kinds of music. Neapolitan mandolins are often found in European classical music and traditional music such as Andean music from Peru. Archtop mandolins are common in American folk music, old-time music, and bluegrass. Flat-backed mandolins are frequently used in Irish, British, and Brazilian folk music, as well as in Mexican estudiantinas.

Other mandolin variations differ mainly in the number of strings. Some have four strings (tuned in fifths), such as the Brescian and Cremonese models. Others have six strings (tuned in fourths), like the Milanese, Lombard, and Sicilian types. There are also 12-string instruments with six pairs of strings, such as the Genoese. Another variation is the tricordia, which has four sets of three strings each (12 strings total).

Over time, the design of the mandolin has changed, especially the soundboard, which is the top part of the instrument. Early mandolins were quiet, used gut strings, and were played with fingers or a quill. Modern mandolins are louder, using metal strings that apply more pressure than gut strings. The modern soundboard is built to handle this pressure. Soundboards are usually round or teardrop-shaped and may have scrolls or other decorative features. They often have one or more sound holes, which can be round, oval, or shaped like an "f." A round or oval sound hole might be covered with a decorative rosette or bordered with purfling.

History

Mandolins came from lutes, which are a family of musical instruments in Europe. Earlier versions in Italy during the 17th and 18th centuries included the gittern and the mandore or mandola. There were many different versions in different areas, but the two most common were the Neapolitan mandolin and the Lombard mandolin. The Neapolitan style became popular around the world.

Construction

Mandolins have a body that acts as a resonator, connected to a neck. The resonating body can be shaped like a bowl (used in necked bowl lutes) or a box (used in necked box lutes). Traditional Italian mandolins, such as the Neapolitan mandolin, have a bowl-shaped body. Necked box instruments include archtop mandolins and flatback mandolins.

Strings are stretched from mechanical tuning machines at the top of the neck to a tailpiece that holds the other end of the strings. The strings pass over the neck and soundboard, resting on a floating bridge. The bridge stays in contact with the soundboard because the strings press down on it. The neck is either flat or slightly curved and has a fingerboard with frets. When the strings vibrate, they cause the soundboard to vibrate, creating sound.

Like other plucked instruments, mandolin notes fade quickly into silence, unlike bowed notes on a violin, which sound continuously. Mandolin notes also fade faster than those from larger string instruments like the guitar. This leads to the use of tremolo, a technique where one or more pairs of strings are rapidly plucked to create longer sounds. The mandolin’s paired strings help with this: a pick strikes each string in a pair alternately, producing a fuller, more continuous sound than a single string would.

Different designs and amplification methods have been developed to increase the mandolin’s volume. These include creating mandolin-banjo hybrids with the drum-like body of a banjo, adding metal resonators (as done by Dobro and the National String Instrument Corporation) to make resonator mandolins, and using amplifiers to make electric mandolins louder.

Tuning

Many different tunings are used. Usually, pairs of strings next to each other are tuned to the same pitch. The most common tuning matches the violin's tuning, written as G3–D4–A4–E5 in scientific pitch notation, or g–d′–a′–e″ in Helmholtz pitch notation.

• Fourth (lowest) string pair: G3 (196.00 Hz)
• Third string pair: D4 (293.66 Hz)
• Second string pair: A4 (440.00 Hz; A above middle C)
• First (highest) string pair: E5 (659.25 Hz)

The Hz values listed assume a standard A pitch of 440 Hz, commonly used in many countries. Some musicians use an A that is 10 Hz higher or lower than 440 Hz, especially in places outside the United States.

Other tunings exist, such as cross-tunings, where the usual pairs of strings are tuned to different pitches. Sometimes, guitarists tune the mandolin to match some of the guitar's string pitches for easier playing.

Mandolin family

The mandolin is the highest-pitched member of the mandolin family, just as the violin is the highest-pitched member of the violin family. Like the violin, its scale length is usually about 13 inches (330 mm). Modern American mandolins inspired by Gibsons have a longer scale, about 13 + 7⁄8 inches (350 mm). Each of its double-strung courses is tuned to the same pitch, and the courses use the same tuning as the violin: G3–D4–A4–E5.

The piccolo or sopranino mandolin is a rare instrument in the family. It is tuned one octave above the mandola and one fourth above the mandolin (C4–G4–D5–A5), just as the piccolo is one octave above the western concert flute or the violino piccolo is one fourth above the violin and viola. One model was made by the Lyon & Healy company under the Leland brand. A few modern instrument makers also produce piccolo mandolins.

The mandola, called the tenor mandola in Britain and Ireland and the liola or alto mandolin in continental Europe, is tuned a fifth below the mandolin, just as the viola is a fifth below the violin. Some also call this instrument the "alto mandola." Its scale length is typically about 16 + 1⁄2 inches (420 mm). It is normally tuned like a viola (a perfect fifth below the mandolin) and a tenor banjo: C3–G3–D4–A4.

The octave mandolin (US and Canada), called the octave mandola in Britain and Ireland and the mandola in continental Europe, is tuned an octave below the mandolin: G2–D3–A3–E4. Its relationship to the mandolin is similar to the tenor violin to the violin or the tenor saxophone to the soprano saxophone. The octave mandolin’s scale length is usually about 20 inches (510 mm), though some instruments have scales as short as 17 inches (430 mm) or as long as 21 inches (530 mm).

In Trinidad, a variant of the mandolin exists called the bandol. It is a flat-backed instrument with four courses, with the lower two courses strung with metal and nylon strings.

The Irish bouzouki, though not strictly part of the mandolin family, looks and sounds similar to the octave mandolin. It is based on the Greek bouzouki, a long-necked lute, and is constructed like a flat-backed mandolin. It uses fifth-based tunings, most often G2–D3–A3–D4. Other tunings include A2–D3–A3–D4, G2–D3–A3–E4 (an octave below the mandolin), G2–D3–G3–D4, or A2–D3–A3–E4. While the Irish bouzouki’s bass course pairs are usually tuned in unison, some instruments replace one string in each pair with a lighter string and tune them in octaves, similar to a 12-string guitar. Though it shares the same range as the octave mandolin, the Irish bouzouki is distinguished by its longer scale length, typically 24 to 26 inches (610 to 660 mm), though scales as long as 27 inches (690 mm), common in the Greek bouzouki, are also used. In modern use, the terms "octave mandolin" and "Irish bouzouki" are often used interchangeably.

The modern cittern may be loosely included in an "extended" mandolin family because of its resemblance to flat-backed mandolins, which it predates. It dates back to the Renaissance and is typically a five-course (ten-string) instrument with a scale length between 20 and 22 inches (510 and 560 mm). It is usually tuned to either D2–G2–D3–A3–D4 or G2–D3–A3–D4–A4, making it similar to an octave mandola with an extra course at the top or bottom of its range. Some luthiers, like Stefan Sobell, also refer to the octave mandola or a shorter-scaled Irish bouzouki as a cittern, regardless of whether it has four or five courses.

Other instruments related to the cittern, which may also be loosely connected to the mandolins, include the 6-course/12-string Portuguese guitar and the 5-course/9-string waldzither.

The mandocello is classically tuned an octave plus a fifth below the mandolin, just as the cello is an octave plus a fifth below the violin. Its strings are tuned to C2–G2–D3–A3. Its scale length is typically about 26 inches (660 mm), compared to a typical violoncello scale of 27 inches (690 mm).

The mandolone was a Baroque instrument in the bass range of the mandolin family, later replaced by the mandocello. It was part of the Neapolitan mandolin family.

The Greek laouto or laghouto (a long-necked lute) is similar to a mandocello and is usually tuned C3/C2–G3/G2–D3/D3–A3/A3, with half of each pair of the lower two courses tuned an octave higher on a lighter string. The body is a staved bowl, with a saddle-less bridge glued to the flat face like most ouds and lutes. It has mechanical tuners, steel strings, and tied gut frets. Modern laoutos played on Crete have the entire lower course tuned to C3, an octave above the expected low C. Its scale length is typically about 28 inches (710 mm).

The Algerian mandole was created by an Italian luthier in the 1930s, scaled up from a mandola to a scale length of about 25 to 27 inches. It is a flat-backed instrument

Variations

Bowlback mandolins, also called roundbacks, are used around the world. They are most often made in Europe, where the long history of mandolin development has led to different local styles. Japanese makers also produce these instruments.

In the United States, these mandolins are sometimes called "potato bug," "potato beetle," or "tater-bug" mandolins because of their shape and the way they are made from wood strips of different colors.

The Neapolitan style has a body shaped like an almond, similar to a bowl. It is built from curved wood strips. The sound table is bent and angled in two directions to hold the tension of eight metal strings, arranged in four groups. A hardwood fingerboard is placed on top of or attached to the sound table. Older instruments may use wooden tuning pegs, while newer ones often use metal tuners. The bridge is a piece of hardwood that can be moved. A pickguard is glued below the sound hole, under the strings. European roundbacks usually have a 13-inch (330 mm) scale length, unlike the 13 + 7⁄8-inch (350 mm) scale found on archtop mandolins.

The Roman style mandolin influenced the Neapolitan style. The Roman mandolin had a more curved and narrow fingerboard. The fingerboard was longer over the sound hole for the high-pitched E strings. The neck had a different shape, less rounded with an edge, and the bridge was curved, raising the G strings. The Roman mandolin used mechanical tuning gears before the Neapolitan style.

Important Italian makers include Vinaccia (Naples), Embergher (Rome), and Calace (Naples). Modern makers also include Lorenzo Lippi (Milan), Hendrik van den Broek (Netherlands), Brian Dean (Canada), Salvatore Masiello and Michele Caiazza (La Bottega del Mandolino), and Ferrara, Gabriele Pandini.

In the United States, Lyon and Healy was a major maker of bowlback mandolins, especially under the "Washburn" brand. Other American makers include Martin, Vega, and Larson Brothers.

In Canada, Brian Dean makes instruments in Neapolitan, Roman, German, and American styles. He is also known for his original "Grand Concert" design created for musician Joseph Brent.

German makers include Albert & Mueller, Dietrich, Klaus Knorr, Reinhold Seiffert, and Alfred Woll. German bowlbacks use a style developed by Seiffert, with a larger, rounder body.

Japanese brands include Kunishima and Suzuki. Other Japanese makers are Oona, Kawada, Noguchi, Toichiro Ishikawa, Rokutaro Nakade, Otiai Tadao, Yoshihiko Takusari, Nokuti Makoto, Watanabe, Kanou Kadama, and Ochiai.

Another group of bowlback mandolins comes from Milan and Lombardy. These mandolins are closer to older instruments like the mandolino or mandore. They are shorter and wider than standard Neapolitan mandolins, with a shallow back. These instruments have six strings: three wire treble strings and three gut or wire-wrapped-silk bass strings. The strings run between tuning pegs and a bridge glued to the soundboard, like a guitar. The Lombard mandolin was tuned g–b–e′–a′–d″–g″ (using a special notation system). Antonio Monzino (Milan) and his family developed the Milanese style, making instruments for six generations.

In 1893, Samuel Adelstein described the Lombard mandolin as wider and shorter than the Neapolitan, with a shallower back and a shorter, wider neck. It had six single strings instead of the regular mandolin’s four sets. The Lombard was tuned C–D–A–E–B–G. The strings were attached to the bridge like a guitar’s. It had 20 frets, covering three octaves and five extra notes. At that time, nylon strings were not used, and Adelstein noted that gut and single strings did not vibrate as clearly as the double steel strings of the Neapolitan.

Brescian mandolins, also called Cremonese, have four gut strings instead of six and a fixed bridge. They were tuned in fifths, like the Neapolitan mandolin. In 1805, Bartolomeo Bortolazzi popularized the Cremonese mandolin in his book, Anweisung die Mandoline von selbst zu erlernen nebst einigen Uebungsstucken. Bortolazzi said that new wire-strung mandolins were uncomfortable to play and had a "less pleasing…hard, zither-like tone" compared to the "softer, full-singing tone" of gut-string instruments. He preferred the four single strings of the Cremonese mandolin, which were tuned the same as the Neapolitan.

The Genoese mandolin was not tuned in fifths. It had six gut strings (or six sets of strings) tuned like a guitar but one octave higher: e–a–d’–g’–b natural–e”. Unlike the Neapolitan and Lombard mandolins, the Genoese did not glue the bridge to the soundboard. Instead, the bridge was held in place by tension from strings running between the bottom and neck of the instrument. The Genoese mandolin had a wider neck than the Neapolitan, and its peghead was similar to a guitar’s.

At the end of the 19th century, a new style of mandolin with a carved top and back, inspired by violin family instruments, began to replace European-style bowlback mandolins in the United States. This style was created by Orville Gibson, a maker from Kalamazoo, Michigan. In 1902, Gibson founded the "Gibson Mandolin-Guitar Manufacturing Co., Limited." Gibson mandolins evolved into two main styles: the Florentine or F-style, which has a decorative scroll near the neck, two points on the lower body, and a carved scroll on the headstock; and the A-style, which is pear-shaped, has no points, and usually has a simpler headstock.

These styles often have two f-shaped soundholes like a violin (F-5 and A-5) or a single oval soundhole (F-4 and A-4 and lower models) directly under the strings. Many variations exist among makers, and other designs have become common. In the United States, Gibson F-hole F-5 mandolins and similar designs are strongly linked to bluegrass

Playing traditions worldwide

The mandolin has a wide variety of music from around the world that can be played on it. This is especially true for music written for the violin, because the mandolin and violin have the same tuning. After being created in Italy, the mandolin spread across Europe. It was often used in classical music, with groups called Estudiantinas in some countries and Zupforchestern in Germany. As the mandolin became popular in Europe, similar traditions developed in other parts of the world, such as the Americas and Japan. Skilled musicians like Carlo Curti, Giuseppe Pettine, Raffaele Calace, and Silvio Ranieri helped make the mandolin a popular instrument in the early 1900s. This popularity declined by the 1930s, but the mandolin found a new role in American music styles such as country, old-time, bluegrass, and folk. In recent years, interest in Baroque and Classical music has led to more attention being given to the mandolin’s historical styles. Musicians like Israeli Avi Avital, Italian Carlo Aonzo, and American Joseph Brent have helped bring this music to more people. In India, the mandolin is used in classical Carnatic music. U. Srinivas was one of the most skilled musicians in this style. He was widely admired for his talent but passed away at a young age. While the mandolin is traditionally linked to Italian, American, and bluegrass music, it has become more popular in Celtic and British folk traditions during the 2000s and 2010s, especially in modern Scottish acoustic groups.

Notable literature

The mandolin appears occasionally in Western European classical music. Historically, it was often seen as a folk instrument. Some important composers wrote music for the mandolin, but very few major works were created by the most famous composers. The number of these works is much smaller than those written for the violin. Because of this, there were few opportunities for mandolin players in regular orchestras. To address this, mandolin orchestras often played arrangements of music originally written for other ensembles. Some musicians have asked modern composers to create new pieces for the mandolin.

Many mandolin compositions from the 18th century onward have been lost or forgotten. Some of these pieces may still be found in museums, libraries, and archives. An example of rediscovered 18th-century mandolin music is the Gimo collection, gathered by Jean Lefebure in Italy in 1762. This collection was forgotten until its manuscripts were found again.

Vivaldi wrote concertos for mandolinos and orchestra, including one for a 4-chord mandolino, string bass, and continuo in C major (RV 425), and one for two 5-chord mandolinos, bass strings, and continuo in G major (RV 532). He also composed a concerto for two mandolins, two violons "in Tromba," two flûtes à bec, two salmoe, two théorbes, violoncelle, strings, and bass continuo in C major (p. 16).

Beethoven wrote mandolin music and enjoyed playing the instrument. His four small pieces were created in 1796: Sonatine WoO 43a; Adagio ma non troppo WoO 43b; Sonatine WoO 44a; and Andante con Variazioni WoO 44b.

Mozart’s opera Don Giovanni (1787) includes mandolin parts, such as the accompaniment for the famous aria Deh vieni alla finestra. In Verdi’s opera Otello, the aria Dove guardi splendono raggi originally called for guzla accompaniment, but it is often played on the mandolin.

Gustav Mahler used the mandolin in his Symphony No. 7, Symphony No. 8, and Das Lied von der Erde.

Mandolin parts appear in works by Schoenberg (Variations Op. 31), Stravinsky (Agon), Prokofiev (Romeo and Juliet), and Webern (Opus 10).

Some 20th-century composers, including Schoenberg, Webern, Stravinsky, and Prokofiev, used the mandolin as their primary instrument.

Important 20th-century European mandolin composers include Raffaele Calace (a composer, performer, and luthier) and Giuseppe Anedda (a virtuoso pianist and professor at the Conservatory of Italian Mandolin in Padua, 1975). Today, notable figures in Italian classical and contemporary music are Ugo Orlandi, Carlo Aonzo, Dorina Frati, Mauro Squillante, and Duilio Galfetti.

Japanese composers also created orchestral music for the mandolin in the 20th century, though these works are not widely known outside Japan. Notable composers include Morishige Takei and Yasuo Kuwahara.

Traditional mandolin orchestras remain popular in Japan and Germany, and they also exist in the United States, Europe, and other parts of the world. These ensembles perform music written for mandolin family instruments or re-orchestrated versions of traditional pieces. A modern traditional mandolin orchestra typically includes first and second mandolins, mandolas (either octave mandolas, tuned an octave below the mandolin, or tenor mandolas, tuned like the viola), mandocellos (tuned like the cello), and bass instruments (string bass or, rarely, mandobasses). Smaller groups, such as quartets with two mandolins, a mandola, and a mandocello, are also common.

A duet or duo is a musical piece for two performers who have equal importance in the composition. An ensemble with more than two solo instruments or voices is called a trio, quartet, quintet, sextet, septet, octet, and so on.

A concerto is a musical composition usually divided into three movements, in which a single solo instrument (such as a piano, violin, cello, or flute) is accompanied by an orchestra or concert band.

Orchestral works in which the mandolin plays a limited role.