Music was an important part of ancient Greek life, appearing in events like weddings, funerals, religious rituals, theater, folk songs, and the recitation of long stories in a poetic style. It played a key role in daily life. Some pieces of written music notes, descriptions in ancient texts, images on pottery, and archaeological findings help us understand what Greek music sounded like, its role in society, how musicians were supported, and the importance of trained musicians.

The word "music" comes from the Muses, who were the daughters of Zeus and goddesses who inspired creative and intellectual work.

The history of music in ancient Greece is closely linked to myths and legends, making it difficult to separate what is true from what is imagined. Greek music and music theory influenced later cultures, including the Romans, early Christian church, and medieval composers. Most of what we know about Greek music theory, systems, and the purpose of music comes from the writings of thinkers like the Pythagoreans, Plato, Aristoxenus, Philodemus, Ptolemy, and Aristides.

Some ancient Greek philosophers studied music. Pythagoras believed music followed the same mathematical rules as the movements of the universe, leading to the idea of the "music of the spheres." The Pythagoreans focused on the math and science of sound, creating tuning systems based on simple numbers and ratios. These systems can be used to play all surviving written music from ancient times. Aristoxenus, who wrote many books about music, studied both how music sounds and how it can be measured with math. He was influenced by Pythagoras but also used ear-based judgments. Music written for singing shows more creative use of musical intervals than the strict harmonic rules of the Pythagoreans.

Music in society and religion

Music was an important part of ancient Greek society. According to Plato in The Republic, Pericles' teacher Damon said, "when the basic styles of music change, the basic styles of the state change with them." Music and physical training were the main parts of education in ancient Greece. The word "music" was used to describe the whole education system.

Instrumental music had religious and entertainment purposes in ancient Greece. It often accompanied religious events, rituals, and festivals. Music was also played during drinking parties, called symposia. A type of music played during these events was the skolion, which was meant to be heard while drinking. Before and after these parties, religious libations—pouring drink as an offering to gods—were made to deities like the Olympic gods, heroes, and Zeus. These offerings were often accompanied by a special melody called the spondeion, which was played with an instrument called the aulos.

Music was important in Greek sacrificial ceremonies. A sarcophagus from Hagia Triada shows that the aulos was used during sacrifices as early as 1300 BC. Music was also used during religious events, worship, and celebrations, especially in the sacrificial cults of Apollo and Dionysus.

Music, along with the use of potions, fasting, and honey, was important in preparing for and helping with divination. Music could cause prophets to experience religious ecstasy and receive revelations. In ancient Greek, the words for "making music" and "prophesying" were the same.

Instruments were used during wartime, though they might not have been considered music. Trumpets played specific notes to give commands to soldiers on the battlefield. The aulos and percussion instruments also helped oarsmen follow verbal commands from the boatswain. These instruments were used mainly to help oarsmen stay in time with each other.

Some types of music included:
– Hymn
– Paean
– Prosodion
– Hyporchema
– Dithyrambs

It is not certain if long narrative poetry, like the works of Homer, was sung. In Plato's Ion, Socrates used both the words "sing" and "speak" when talking about Homeric epics. This suggests that these poems may have been recited without instruments, in a chant-like style.

Music was also part of ancient Greek lyric poetry, which by definition was poetry or a song played with a lyre. Lyric poetry split into two types: monodic lyric, performed by one person, and choral lyric, sung and sometimes danced by a group called the choros. Famous lyric poets include Alkaios and Sappho from the island of Lesbos. Sappho is one of the few women whose poetry has survived.

Music was important in ancient Greek drama. In his Poetics, Aristotle said that tragic drama came from dithyrambs. Leaders of dithyrambs led songs and dances, and the group would respond. Aristotle suggested that this interaction between one person and a group led to the development of tragic drama, which started with a single actor who played all parts through song or speech. This actor would speak with the choros, who told most of the story through song and dance. In ancient Greece, playwrights were expected to write scripts, compose music, and create dance moves.

Ancient Greek myths were not written in one form. Instead, there are many different versions from different authors over many centuries, which can lead to differences or contradictions. According to Greek mythology, music, instruments, and the arts of sound were given to humans by the gods.

Apollo was considered the god of music and harmony, but other gods and demigods were also linked to music. The Muses were associated with specific parts of music. The invention of all ancient Greek instruments was credited to the gods. Music was used in many forms of Greek storytelling and art, including drama and poetry. There are many myths about music and musicians.

In Greek mythology: Amphion learned music from Hermes and used a golden lyre to build Thebes by moving stones with his music; Orpheus, a master musician, played so beautifully that he could calm wild animals; the Orphic myths say Rhea played a drum to attract people's attention to the goddess's oracles; Hermes showed Apollo his newly invented tortoise-shell lyre and played a song that praised Apollo, earning forgiveness; and Apollo won musical contests against Marsyas and Pan.

These stories show that music was central to how the Greeks believed their people came into existence and how the gods watched over their lives. It is no surprise that music was present at events like the Pythian Games, the Olympic Games, religious ceremonies, and the beginnings of drama, which came from dithyrambs performed for Dionysus.

After the fall of Athens in 404 BC at the end of the first Peloponnesian War, the sounds of music at rituals, games, and dramas may have changed. There was a "revolution" in Greek culture, and Plato criticized the new music for using talent and showmanship in ways that ignored traditional standards. While instrumental skill was valued, too much focus on instruments was seen as a problem.

Some important musical instruments include:
– Lyre
– Aulos
– Syrinx / Pan flute

Orpheus was an important figure in Greek myths about music. Orpheus was a legendary poet and musician, but his parentage is unclear. Some say he was the son of Apollo or the Muse Calliope, while others say he had mortal parents. Orpheus was the student and brother of Linus, who was said to have been taught to sing by the Muses. Others claim Apollo gave Orpheus a golden lyre and taught him to play.

Orpheus was so skilled that he could charm inanimate objects. In the Argonautica, he played music so beautifully that it outshone the sirens, helping Jason and the Argonauts avoid their trap. When his wife, Eurydice, died, he played a sad song that made the gods and nymphs weep. He traveled to the underworld and used music to convince Hades to let him bring Eurydice back, but he had to keep his eyes closed until they left. He failed to do this, and Eurydice was lost forever.

According to Pseudo-Apollodorus in Bibliotheca, Marsyas, a Phrygian satyr, once boasted…

Greek musical instruments

These are some of the instruments used in the music of ancient Greece and Rome. The lyre, cithara, aulos, barbiton, hydraulis, and salpinx were among the most common. Other instruments included:

• Lyre
• Cithara
• Barbiton
• Kanonaki
• Harp
• Aulos
• Syrinx (also called the Pan flute)
• Hydraulis
• Salpinx
• Tympanum
• Crotalum
• Koudounia

Music and philosophy

The ancient Greek thinker Pythagoras was deeply interested in mathematics and how it connected to music. He studied how strings and air columns vibrate, how they create overtones, and how these overtones relate to each other through numbers. Pythagoras and his followers believed in the idea of the "music of the spheres," suggesting that the universe itself had a kind of musical harmony. He observed how hammers struck in a blacksmith's shop produced different sounds and created the monochord, an instrument with a string and a movable bridge. Using the monochord, he discovered that the pitch of a string depends on its length.

At one time, Plato criticized the new styles of music being played. He believed that music should follow strict rules based on ancient Greek traditions. These traditions linked specific musical scales, or "modes," to certain emotions and spiritual qualities. For example, the Dorian mode was said to sound harsh, and the Phrygian mode was described as sensual. Plato argued that musicians were moving away from these established principles, favoring music that "sounded good" instead of following the traditional system. He believed that music should guide people's emotions and character, not just entertain.

Modern Western music uses scales made up of whole tones (like the distance between C and D on a piano) and half tones (like the distance between C and C-sharp). Ancient Greek music, however, used a wider variety of tones, including smaller intervals called quarter-tones. This allowed the Greeks to create many different scales, each with its own unique emotional or spiritual meaning. These ideas influenced later Roman and medieval European music, even though the names of the scales, like "Lydian," no longer reflected their original sounds or purposes.

From writings by Plato, Aristoxenus, and Boethius, we know that Greek music before Plato's time was mostly monophonic, meaning it focused on single melodies based on specific scales. Harmony, or the use of multiple notes played together to create a sense of resolution, was not developed until the European Middle Ages. While some ancient Greek musicians played more than one note at a time, this was considered an advanced technique. Evidence from ancient scripts and musical theories suggests that people in the ancient Mediterranean region may have used multiple notes together long before the Greeks developed written music notation.

Aristotle believed that music should be part of education, along with reading, writing, and physical training. He argued that music helped people relax and enjoy life, which was important for balancing work and leisure. He thought that learning to play an instrument was essential for developing character. Aristotle also believed that music could shape a person's behavior, for better or worse, depending on how it was taught. He emphasized that music education should not interfere with physical training or military duties. Students should learn enough to be more skilled than common workers but not reach the level of professional musicians. He suggested that simple instruments like the lyre or flute were better for education, while more complex instruments like the harp were not. Aristotle also believed that certain types of music, like those with ethical themes, were more suitable for teaching than music focused on passion or action.

Surviving music

• Eleusis inv. 907 (trumpet signal)
• Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Comp. 63 f.
• Euripides, Orestes, Papyrus Vienna G 2315
• Papyrus Leiden inv. P. 510 (Euripides, Iphigenia in Aulis)

• Papyrus Ashm. inv. 89B/31, 33
• Papyrus Ashm. inv. 89B/29-32 (citharodic nomes)
• Papyrus Hibeh 231
• Papyrus Zeno 59533
• Papyrus Vienna G 29825 a/b recto
• Papyrus Vienna G 29825 a/b verso
• Papyrus Vienna G 29825 c
• Papyrus Vienna G 29825 d-f
• Papyrus Vienna G 13763/1494
• Papyrus Berlin 6870
• Epidaurus, SEG 30. 390 (Hymn to Asclepius)

• Delphic Hymns
• Seikilos epitaph
• Hymns of Mesomedes