Ottoman music, also called Turkish classical music or Turkish art music, is a type of classical music that began in the Ottoman Empire. It developed in the palace, major cities, and Sufi communities. Traditionally, it includes a solo singer and a small or medium-sized group of musicians playing instruments.

This music tradition became most famous around the early 1800s. It has roots in the music of the Greek and Persian worlds. A key feature is its use of a system called makam, which is also known as dastgah or echos. This system includes many different scales and melodies. More than 600 makams have been used in Ottoman music, with at least 120 being commonly used and officially defined. Rhythmically, Ottoman music uses two systems: zaman, which sets the time structure, and usûl, which determines where the beats are emphasized. Many instruments were used, including the Turkish tanbur (a lute), ney (a flute), klasik kemençe (a lyre), keman (a violin), kanun (a zither), and others.

Until the 1800s, Ottoman music was the main type of music in the empire. Over time, it became a diverse art form with styles like peşrev, kâr, and saz semaî, which changed greatly as the empire grew. By the late 1700s, Ottoman music included music from many different groups, such as post-Byzantine and Sephardic musicians.

In the 1800s, some Ottoman elites believed their music was less advanced than Western music and stopped supporting it in the palace. This caused many musicians to find work in entertainment settings, leading to a simpler style called gazino. After the Ottoman Empire ended, the new government tried to replace Ottoman music with Western styles. This decline changed Ottoman music greatly. When the new government failed to create a replacement, the remaining traditions were later used and claimed as national heritage by the 1980 military regime.

Naming conventions

The way music from the Ottoman Empire was named has caused much debate. Governments often try to assign national identity to music, which can create confusion. The Ottomans did not usually separate different types of music, calling them all "musikî," a word from Ancient Greek. This naming system changed as the Ottoman Empire adopted Western culture. A split between Western and Ottoman music styles was described as "alafranga" (European) and "alaturka" (Turkish) by Ottoman leaders. After the Ottoman Empire ended, new terms were used to describe Ottoman music, forming today’s naming system.

These naming changes have led to more confusion because it is unclear how to divide Ottoman music into time periods. Researcher Owen Wright said that by the late 17th century, Ottoman music had changed so much from earlier styles that it was like comparing two different musical languages. Another researcher, Walter Zev Feldman, said a truly unique Ottoman style likely began no earlier than the 1600s.

Studies by Greek musicians in the 18th and 19th centuries showed that Greek and Turkish music systems share many similarities. They found that the structures and chords used in both traditions closely match, with a near one-to-one relationship between their musical elements.

History

Ottoman music is closely connected to the music of nearby regions, including Byzantine, Persian, and Arabic traditions. Early records of Ottoman classical music, called "mythologies" by Feldman, focus on a sense of continuity rather than a mix of different styles. The Ottomans, as a Persianate empire, believed their music had an unbroken connection from medieval Greater Iran, such as from Herat to Istanbul. In republican Turkey, Ottoman classical music was linked to important figures from medieval Islamic civilization, like al-Farabi, Ibn Sina, and al-Maraghi. However, historical sources can be used to show both a sense of continuity and major changes in Ottoman music over time.

Much of the musical language in Ottoman tradition comes from Arabic or Persian, as there were no major music theory works written in Turkish until the Edvar of Hızır bin Abdullah. Turkic empires relied on Persian writings to create their music. Therefore, early Ottoman music was similar to music from earlier Near and Middle Eastern societies, featuring modal, heterophonic music with developed melodies and complex rhythms.

Until the 15th century, the Ottomans tried to copy the Timurid Renaissance, a period of artistic and musical creativity in Eastern Iran and Central Asia. This led to new musical works in the 15th century, with changes to traditional structures and the adoption of new styles. This time was called "first Ottoman romanticism" by Wittek and later by musician Çinuçen Tanrıkorur.

The classical period of the Ottoman Empire is often seen as a time when Ottoman power in Europe was strongest. However, Tanrıkorur notes that Ottoman music did not always develop in the same way as the empire's political and economic growth. After Persian classical music declined, Ottoman court music gradually shifted toward folk styles, especially the murabba form. While many peşrevs and semais were popular among the upper class, they were often simplified, with fewer complex rhythms.

By the 16th century, the complex rhythmic cycles of 15th-century Persianate music were no longer widely used. Many 15th-century works had their rhythms changed in newer collections, suggesting few original pieces were played as they were. The nawba, an early long musical performance, was also lost and replaced by the fasıl about a century later.

16th-century records include more pieces attributed to 14th-century and earlier composers. This, according to Wright, shows the creation of "pseudo-graphia," or fake works falsely credited to older composers, as their real works were forgotten. Feldman suggests this happened because the complexity of early Ottoman music made it hard to play without royal support, or because the loss of musical traditions made it harder for new performers to access older works.

Despite this, the classical era also saw the start of a multicultural musical tradition in the Ottoman Empire. Cristaldi notes that this period began blending Persian and Byzantine traditions, forming a distinct Ottoman style. Synagogal chants were also adapted to the makam system, leading to a "new synthesis" of Ottoman music. Israel ben Moses Najara and Shlomo Mazal Tov were influential in this process, as they and other non-Muslim musicians attended Mevlevi ceremonies, where religious music was performed. This fusion became a key part of 17th-century Ottoman music.

A new style of Ottoman music, called the "new synthesis" by Feldman, emerged in the second half of the 17th century. This period is seen as a time of renewed musical complexity and growth, driven by aristocratic Muslims and Mevlevi dervish musicians. One key composer was Kasımpaşalı Osman Effendi, who focused on reviving complex rhythmic cycles. His student, Hafız Post, used these cycles in the popular murabba form, connecting older Persian works with newer Anatolian styles. Another student, Mustafa Itri, incorporated Byzantine musical traditions into his compositions, leading to greater exchanges between Byzantine and Ottoman music. Greek composers like Peter Peloponnesios, Hanende Zacharia, and Tanburi Angeli also became influential during this time. Modal structures from both traditions began to overlap, with manuscripts recording both echoi (Byzantine) and makams (Ottoman) of the same pieces.

The influence of Osman Effendi extended beyond his students, affecting the work of Eastern European intellectual Dimitrie Cantemir. Cantemir wrote about the decline and revival of Ottoman music in the 16th and 17th centuries, noting the complexity of Ottoman music compared to Western traditions. His treatise, the Edvâr, marked a shift in Ottoman music theory by focusing on practical and empirical methods rather than poetic styles. This work became a key text in understanding Ottoman music.

Characteristics

Ottoman music shares some features with Western classical music but uses two separate systems: one for melodies called makam and one for rhythm called usûl. The makam system divides an octave into 53 small tones, some of which are named perde, and uses specific ways to develop melodies, called seyir, to create music. When makam is used in its purest form, the result is a piece called taksim, which is an improvisational, rhythmically structured composition. Composed pieces also use usûl, a complex system of meters and accents that help structure the music.

Ottoman music is played by ensembles similar in size to a chamber orchestra. A scholar named Çinuçen Tanrıkorur lists 18 common instruments in classical Ottoman music, including the ney, tambur, violin, oud, and qanun. Other instruments, like the yaylı tambur, rebab, and mıskal, are also used. Over time, some instruments became less common. For example, the qanun, ney, and tambur were used for most of the empire’s history, but others, like the çeng (a type of harp), were no longer used in classical music. During the 19th century, some classical instruments were replaced by folk instruments, such as the kemençe (a type of lyre) taking the place of the rebab, and the oud returning to classical music after a decline.

Makam is the term for the melodic material in Near Eastern, Middle Eastern, and Anatolian traditional music. It is a key part of music theory in these regions, though its definitions and classifications have been debated by scholars. Makams are often grouped into three categories: basit (basic), şed (transposed), and mürekkep (compound). Basit and şed makams are similar to Western scales, while mürekkep makams are more complex and cannot be directly compared to Western scales.

Makams are created by combining smaller groups of notes called cins. These groups can be made up of three, four, or five notes and are used to form different makams. This system allows for many variations in melody and provides a way to move between different makams during a piece.

While makam is often used as a synonym for mode, some scholars argue that makams are more than just scales. Two makams might share the same notes but use different seyir (melodic progressions), or vice versa. This creates a wide variety of makams, which are grouped into families and then separated into individual types based on their seyir. Each makam also has a hierarchy of notes, with a central "nucleus" and other notes that are less important and can change. Some scholars suggest that makams are better understood as patterns of movement between notes, similar to how chord progressions work in Western music.

Seyir refers to the way melodies move in Ottoman music. Theories about seyir are still debated, and one popular system, the Arel-Ezgi-Üzdilek classification, suggests that makams can develop in both ascending and descending ways. However, other scholars, like Yöre, argue that seyir should be understood in terms of the shape or contour of the melody.

A related term, terkib, describes small parts within a makam that have their own musical qualities. However, this term was rarely used after the 18th century, and its role was taken over by seyir and çeşni. Çeşni refers to small, separate musical sections that suggest a different makam.

Modulation in Ottoman music can be defined in three ways: changing the pitch (transposition), altering the structure of the melody, or changing the central note of a makam. These changes are considered a shift in makam. Until the late 18th century, modulations and complex mürekkep makams (compound makams) were rare. The development of the 4-hâne instrumental structure and the zemin-miyan system allowed for more modulations by creating a theoretical basis for relationships between makams. By the 19th century, this led to the "wandering makam" phenomenon, where modulations happened more quickly than expected.

Usûl refers to rhythmic cycles that guide the structure of music, similar to time signatures in Western music. Unlike time signatures, usûl also indicate where accents should be placed. A term called zaman is sometimes used to match Western time signatures. For example, the usûls Çenber and Nimsakil both have four beats and are described as "24 zamanlı," even though their internal divisions differ. This system allows for complex usûls that are learned through repetition, as noted by Cantemir, who said that without knowing the rhythm, even hearing a song many times would not help someone play it.

Usûl is divided into two types: short and long. Short usûls, like sofyan and semaî, are often used in dance music and match the rhythm of melodies and aruz meters. One exception is the aksak semaî usûl, which does not align with melodies or meters. Long usûls avoid matching aruz and operate on different principles. Feldman notes that by the 18th century, the structure of usûls became less important in some compositions, as the melodies themselves became more prominent.

Like many Islamic musical traditions, the Ottomans did not use a standard notation system until the 19th century. Various systems, such as Byzantine, staff, and abjad notation, were used but were mainly for recording and studying music. Instead, the Ottomans relied on an oral teaching method called meşk. This was not because they did not understand written music, but because they believed music should be passed down through listening and practice. Jäger explains that the role of a composer in Ottoman music was different from the

Forms

Classical music in the Ottoman style is often performed in a long musical event called a fasıl. A fasıl includes several parts that must follow a specific order: taksim, peşrev, kâr (ı-natık), kârçe, beste, ağır semâi, şarkı, yürük semâi, and saz semâi. A fasıl is led by a serhânende, who guides the musicians in following specific rhythmic patterns called usûls. Other musicians are called sazende (instrumentalists) or hânende (vocalists).

A taksim is an instrumental piece that is played freely, using rhythmic patterns common in the region. It is performed by one musician or a small group and may appear at the beginning of a fasıl or between parts with different rhythms or musical scales. Taksims are a key part of Ottoman music and have influenced music in many regions after the Ottoman Empire. However, the way taksims are played changes depending on the area.

All taksims follow set melodic patterns called seyir, which guide how melodies develop. They also use changes between different musical scales, as a taksim using only one scale would not have been considered valuable by Ottomans. Some scholars believe this practice began in the 17th century. Taksims are also used to show how different scales relate to each other. This tradition started with Dimitrie Cantemir, who wrote a work called Nağme-i Külliyat-ı Makamat, which includes 36 examples of scale changes.

Gazels are vocal versions of taksims. They are sung with poetry of the same name. The word "gazel" began to be used instead of "taksim" for vocal improvisation around the 18th century.

Peşrevs are performed after the taksim in a fasıl. They have complex rhythms and are made up of four hânes (sections) and one mülazime (repeating part). Their melodies alternate between neighboring scales. Peşrevs are used as preludes for long musical performances and also influenced Western classical music as military marches. Complex peşrevs with many scale changes are called Fihrist peşrevs or Küll-i Külliyat.

Kârs, kârçes, and bestes are slow, complex vocal pieces performed after the peşrev. They include terennüm, syllables that represent rhythm in Ottoman poetry. Like Fihrist peşrevs, complex versions of these pieces are called kar-ı natıks. In some versions, changes between scales are marked by puns related to the scale’s name, which is considered both poetic and educational.

Semai is a term for both instrumental and vocal music and is often the most repeated part of a fasıl. It includes 4 to 6 hânes and one mülazime, which repeats after each hâne. Ağır semâis are slow vocal pieces written in specific rhythmic patterns and are played after a kâr or beste. Yürük semâis are faster vocal pieces with similar rhythms and are played after the ağır semâi. Saz semâis are instrumental pieces played after the yürük semâi. They follow a strict structure, with the first three hânes using a specific rhythm and the fourth hâne using smaller rhythms. Despite this structure, they are played with many embellishments that create complex time signatures.

Two main types of semi-classical music exist: şarkı and oyun havası. Şarkı refers to urban songs added to classical music, especially after the 19th century when the gazino style was created. Oyun havası includes dances or airs, such as sirto, longa, hasapiko, zeybek, tavşanca, and köçekçe. These are sometimes included in classical music but rarely in fasıls.