In sociology, a post-industrial society is a phase in how society grows and changes when the service sector creates more wealth than the manufacturing sector of the economy.
The term was introduced by Alain Touraine and is connected to other sociological ideas such as post-Fordism, information society, knowledge economy, post-industrial economy, liquid modernity, and network society. These terms are often used in economics or social science research as a general background for studying societies.
As the term has been used, several common themes have started to appear.
Origins
Daniel Bell made the term famous in his 1974 book The Coming of Post-Industrial Society. Some people say Bell created the term, but French sociologist Alain Touraine wrote the first major work about post-industrial society in 1969. The term was also used often by social philosopher Ivan Illich in his 1973 paper Tools for Conviviality and appeared in Leftist writings from the middle to the end of the 1960s.
As the term became more common, its meaning changed over time. Today, it is used by marketers like Seth Godin, public policy experts like Keith Boeckelman, and sociologists like Neil Fligstein and Ofer Sharone. In 1998, U.S. President Bill Clinton used the term to describe China’s growth during a discussion in Shanghai.
Valuation of knowledge
In post-industrial societies, knowledge becomes more valuable than ever before. This idea was first suggested by Daniel Bell, who predicted how jobs would change in such societies. He believed that employment would grow more quickly in the tertiary (service) and quaternary (knowledge-based) sectors compared to the primary (agriculture) and secondary (manufacturing) sectors. Over time, these sectors would become the most important parts of the economy. As a result, people with specialized knowledge would gain more influence, and power would be controlled by those who possess it.
Because jobs in the tertiary and quaternary sectors require knowledge, education systems will need to change in small but important ways. The growing importance of experts leads to universities and research centers becoming central to post-industrial societies. These institutions become the main places where knowledge is created and where experts are trained. As a result, young people living in cities who are well-educated and interested in issues like social justice and environmental protection benefit the most in these societies. These individuals often take on greater roles in society due to their education and knowledge.
The increasing value of knowledge in post-industrial societies leads to more people gaining expertise across the economy and throughout society. This helps reduce what Alan Banks and Jim Foster describe as "undesirable jobs" and "extreme poverty and inequality." This change is supported by the growing influence of young, educated people who care about fairness and justice.
Economists at the University of California, Berkeley, have studied how knowledge functions as a type of capital, similar to physical assets like factories or vehicles. They argue that creating or adding knowledge can become the foundation for policies aimed at promoting economic growth in post-industrial societies.
In post-industrial societies, scientific knowledge and technology may sometimes be viewed with less value by individuals, even though they still expect the benefits these advancements provide. This is because people are more aware of the moral trade-offs and risks that come with scientific progress.
Creativity culture
Post-industrial society supports creative industries by helping people express themselves and use their talents. Many young adults who have completed higher education, such as college or university, are well-prepared to succeed in a world that relies heavily on technology. As education systems focus more on teaching skills that help people grow personally and creatively, each new generation becomes better able to work in and support creative fields. This change in education, along with the growing number of young professionals, is explained by James D. Wright, who notes that high levels of wealth and meeting basic needs allow people to focus on other interests. Ellen Dunham-Jones also points out that in post-industrial societies, goods are shared more equally, allowing people to spend time on activities like leisure and self-directed work.
In post-industrial societies, knowledge and technology are central to progress. People who are naturally creative benefit the most in such environments. The idea of "speed, mobility, and malleability" fits well with creative industries, which are becoming more important as traditional industries focused on making goods decline. As a result, artists, musicians, and others with skills suited to service and creative sectors are given more opportunities. Urban geographer Trevor Barnes describes how cities like Vancouver have developed after wars, with the growth of industries like video game design becoming a key part of the service sector.
The ability of post-industrial societies to support creative industries is shown through their economic history. As economic activity moves from basic industries like farming and manufacturing to service and creative sectors, cities become better at sharing information. This is needed because industries focused on finance, education, communication, and design require up-to-date information from around the world. As cities become hubs where global ideas meet, these service and creative industries grow stronger.
A group of people who value creativity strongly has formed, and they support the post-industrial way of life. They believe that businesses focused on creating intangible things, like art or ideas, are now more important than traditional manufacturing industries.
Kevin Spacey, who was an actor and later led the Old Vic Theatre, wrote in a guest column for The Times that the arts provide jobs and contribute more to exports than manufacturing. He also highlighted the educational value of the arts.
Criticism
Post-industrialism is criticized for the amount of real, fundamental change it produces in society, if any at all. A mild view held by Alan Banks and Jim Foster suggests that descriptions of post-industrial society by supporters assume that professional, educated elites were less important in the past than they are now, and that changes are small but exaggerated. More critical views argue that post-industrialism is the highest stage of capitalism, where the system creates goods for profit rather than practical needs and is controlled by private groups instead of the public. This perspective is supported by the idea that a modern (post-industrial) society is a technocracy, meaning it is led by experts and professionals. These societies are known for influencing people through persuasion rather than force, reflecting the idea that the ruling class is mainly made up of managers. Pope Francis has stated that the post-industrial period may be remembered as one of the most irresponsible in history, though he also expresses hope that humanity will take its responsibilities seriously in the 21st century.
Some argue that no major changes have occurred in moving from industrial to post-industrial societies, as problems from earlier times remain. This view, rooted in neo-Malthusian ideas, focuses on ongoing issues like resource scarcity, overpopulation, and environmental damage, which are leftover from the industrial era. These problems are worsened by "corporate liberalism," which promotes economic growth by creating and satisfying artificial needs, or as Christopher Lasch called it, "subsidized waste."
Urban development in post-industrial societies is also controversial. Critics argue that it leads to environmental harm, not improvement, due to patterns of growth. Urban sprawl, which involves cities expanding into low-density areas with features like office parks, malls, and gated communities, is a key issue. This growth stems from a post-industrial culture focused on mobile capital, the service economy, consumerism, and banking deregulation. Urban sprawl causes environmental damage by increasing land use, energy consumption, and pollution as cities grow. It also reflects concerns about overpopulation and resource scarcity, which lead to environmental decline. Socially, post-industrialism's emphasis on mobility and flexibility weakens community ties, treating social connections as replaceable, like disposable items.
Post-industrialism is primarily a Western concept. It is believed to be possible only in the Global West, which is assumed to be the only region capable of fully achieving industrialization and then post-industrialization. Herman Kahn predicted that the benefits of post-industrial societies, such as economic growth and high quality of life, would reach most people in Western societies and only some in Eastern societies. This view is challenged by the idea that post-industrialism continues capitalism.
Recalling the idea that all modern societies are technocracies, T. Roszak argues that societies are moving toward becoming technocracies. He ranks the most advanced technocracies as those in the West, followed by others in descending order: "vulgar," "teratoid," and "comic opera" technocracies. This view assumes all societies follow the same path of development as Western ones, ignoring alternative models from other regions.
Historians and sociologists did not call the revolution after the agricultural society a "post-agricultural society." The term "post-industrial society" indicates a change, not a positive description of a new stage.
Ivan Illich, an early user of the term, created the idea of "Conviviality" or the "Convivial Society" as a positive alternative to post-industrialism.
Some scholars, including Allen Scott and Edward Soja, argue that industry remains central to capitalist growth. Services are becoming more industrialized and automated but still depend heavily on industrial production. Others, like Edward Soja, suggest that even if industry is located outside a post-industrial nation, the nation cannot ignore its social importance.
Concerns also arise about differences in mindset and goals between industrial and post-industrial societies. For example, if an industrial society stopped supplying goods to a post-industrial one, the latter might struggle to find alternatives, giving the industrial society more power. The post-industrial society, which produces fewer physical goods, would rely on the industrial society to maintain supply chains. The industrial society could then set terms, and the post-industrial society would face challenges until it could replace imported goods with domestic production.