Swing music is a type of jazz that began in the United States during the late 1920s and early 1930s. It became popular across the country from the mid-1930s. Swing is considered the most well-known period of jazz as a form of entertainment before modern jazz appeared. Swing bands often included musicians who played their own versions of the melody over the group’s arrangement. The danceable style of big bands, led by figures such as Fletcher Henderson and Benny Goodman, was the main type of American popular music between 1935 and 1946, known as the swing era. During this time, people danced the Lindy Hop. The word "swing" was also used to describe music with a strong, lively rhythm. Big band leaders during the swing era included Benny Goodman, Duke Ellington, Count Basie, Jimmie Lunceford, Cab Calloway, Benny Carter, Jimmy Dorsey, Tommy Dorsey, Earl Hines, Bunny Berigan, Harry James, Lionel Hampton, Glenn Miller, and Artie Shaw.
Overview
Swing music began in the 1920s with dance music groups that used new written arrangements and rhythmic ideas developed by jazz musicians like Louis Armstrong, Coleman Hawkins, Benny Carter, and others. During World War II, swing became less popular, and after the war, styles like bebop and jump blues gained more attention.
Swing music mixed with other types of music to create new styles. In country music, artists such as Jimmie Rodgers, Moon Mullican, Milton Brown, and Bob Wills combined swing with blues to form a style called "western swing." A famous Romani guitarist named Django Reinhardt created a type of swing music called gypsy swing and wrote a well-known song titled "Minor Swing." In the late 1980s and early 1990s, a new type of swing music called new jack swing (also known as New York go-go) was created by young producer Teddy Riley. In the late 1990s and early 2000s, a revival of swing music happened, led by groups like Squirrel Nut Zippers, Brian Setzer Orchestra, and Big Bad Voodoo Daddy.
1920s: Roots
During the 1920s, developments in dance orchestras and jazz music helped shape the swing style of the 1930s. In 1923, the Fletcher Henderson Orchestra used new arrangements by Don Redman that included call-and-response exchanges between brass and reed sections, and added interludes to support soloists. These arrangements had a smoother rhythm compared to the ragtime-influenced music that was common at the time. In 1924, Louis Armstrong joined the Henderson band, increasing the focus on solo performances. Other soloists in the Henderson band, such as Coleman Hawkins, Benny Carter, and Buster Bailey, also influenced the styles of musicians during the swing era. The Henderson band’s long performances at the Roseland Ballroom in New York inspired other big bands. Duke Ellington said the Henderson band influenced his own band’s sound. In 1925, Armstrong left the Henderson band and helped develop Chicago style jazz, which was another step toward swing.
Traditional New Orleans jazz used a two-beat rhythm and featured improvisation led by a trumpet or cornet, often followed by a clarinet and trombone in a call-and-response pattern. The rhythm section included a sousaphone and drums, and sometimes a banjo. By the early 1920s, guitars and pianos sometimes replaced the banjo, and a string bass sometimes replaced the sousaphone. The use of the string bass allowed for 4-beat rhythms at faster speeds, increasing rhythmic freedom. Chicago style jazz gave soloists more freedom to create melodies without relying on other front-line instruments. Louis Armstrong used the 4-beat rhythm, emphasizing the second and fourth beats and adding lead-in notes to his solos, creating a rhythmic feel known as swing.
In 1927, Armstrong worked with pianist Earl Hines, who influenced jazz piano in a way similar to Armstrong’s impact on the trumpet. Hines’ style, which focused on melodic, horn-like playing, differed from the typical jazz piano methods that used rhythmic patterns around "pivot notes." His use of accents on lead-in beats and mixed time signatures created a sense of anticipation in his music. He also used musical silences, called "stops," to build tension. Hines’ style influenced many swing-era pianists, including Teddy Wilson, Art Tatum, Jess Stacy, Nat "King" Cole, Erroll Garner, Mary Lou Williams, and Jay McShann.
Black territory dance bands in the Southwest developed styles based on blues simplicity, using repeated musical phrases in call-and-response patterns to create strong, danceable rhythms and support long solos. These rhythm-heavy songs, called "stomps," required loud volumes, leading to continued use of the sousaphone in large ensembles. This limited the use of more flexible rhythms based on 4-beat time signatures. Meanwhile, string bass players like Walter Page improved their skills to support full dance orchestras.
The growth of radio and the recording industry in the 1920s helped popular dance bands reach a national audience. The most popular style was the "sweet" style, often featuring strings. Paul Whiteman created a style called "symphonic jazz," combining classical music elements with jazz rhythms. His orchestra was very successful and influenced many sweet-style bands. Jean Goldkette’s Victor Recording Orchestra included top white jazz musicians like Bix Beiderbecke, Jimmy Dorsey, Frank Trumbauer, Pee Wee Russell, Eddie Lang, and Joe Venuti. The Victor Orchestra earned respect from the Fletcher Henderson Orchestra during a competition, and Henderson’s cornetist Rex Stewart said Goldkette’s band was the most influential white band before Benny Goodman’s. As a promoter, Goldkette also helped organize and support McKinney’s Cotton Pickers and Glen Gray’s Orange Blossoms (later the Casa Loma Orchestra), two other Detroit-area bands that influenced early swing music.
Early swing
As the 1920s ended and the 1930s began, new ideas about rhythm and how musicians played together in a group, which became known as the swing style, changed the sounds of both large and small bands. In 1928, the Earl Hines Orchestra was broadcast across much of the Midwest from the Grand Terrace Cafe in Chicago. There, Hines had the chance to share his new ideas about rhythm and musical expression with a big band. His arranger, Jimmy Mundy, later helped create music for the Benny Goodman Orchestra. The Duke Ellington Orchestra played new sounds that were broadcast nationally from New York's Cotton Club, followed by the Cab Calloway Orchestra and the Jimmie Lunceford Orchestra. In New York, the Fletcher Henderson Orchestra performed the new style at the Roseland Ballroom, and the Chick Webb Orchestra, known as a strong force in swing music, began its long performance at the Savoy Ballroom in 1931. Bennie Moten and the Kansas City Orchestra showed a style of swing that used repeated musical phrases and focused on individual solos, which had developed in Kansas City. A sign of this changing music was the name change of Moten's most famous song, from "Moten Stomp" to "Moten Swing." Moten's orchestra had a very successful tour in late 1932. People loved the new music, and at the Pearl Theatre in Philadelphia in December 1932, the public was allowed to enter freely. Crowds filled the theatre to hear Moten's orchestra, and the group played seven encores.
In the early 1930s, the financial problems of the Great Depression limited the recording of new music and caused some bands to close, including the Fletcher Henderson Orchestra and McKinney's Cotton Pickers in 1934. Henderson then sold his musical arrangements to Benny Goodman, a rising bandleader.
At this time, "sweet" dance music, which was softer and more romantic, remained popular with white audiences and was performed successfully by bandleaders like Guy Lombardo and Shep Fields. However, the Casa Loma Orchestra and the Benny Goodman Orchestra aimed to reach younger audiences by focusing on the new swing style. Although Benny Goodman said "sweet" music was a "weak sister" compared to the "real music" of America, Lombardo's band stayed very popular for many years. It also helped break down racial barriers and was even praised by Louis Armstrong, one of the most famous musicians of the time.
1935–1946: The swing era
In 1935, the Benny Goodman Orchestra won a spot on the radio show Let's Dance and began playing new songs arranged by Fletcher Henderson. Goodman's show aired late at night in the East, so few people heard it. However, it was broadcast earlier on the West Coast, where it gained a following that later helped Goodman succeed at the Palomar Ballroom. Beginning on August 21, 1935, audiences at the Palomar Ballroom, especially young white dancers, enjoyed Goodman's energetic music and creative arrangements. The sudden popularity of Goodman's orchestra changed how popular music was made in America. Goodman's success with "hot" swing music inspired others to adopt the style, leading to the "swing era," which lasted until 1946.
A typical swing song had a strong rhythm section, such as drums and bass, supporting woodwind and brass instruments that played back and forth in a call-and-response pattern. The amount of improvisation varied depending on the song, band, and leader. Big band swing arrangements often included an introduction that presented the main theme, sections for solo musicians, and exciting final parts. Some songs focused on a single soloist or singer. Swing music included songs from the Great American Songbook, original compositions by bands, traditional jazz tunes like "King Porter Stomp," which became a hit for Goodman's orchestra, and blues.
Hot swing music was closely linked to the jitterbug dance, which became a national trend during the swing era. Swing dancing began in the late 1920s as the "Lindy Hop" and later included styles like The Suzie Q, Truckin', Peckin' Jive, The Big Apple, and The Shag. Groups of jitterbug dancers, sometimes competing, gathered in ballrooms that played hot swing music. Dancers were often shown in movies and newsreels. Professional dance troupes, such as Whitey's Lindy Hoppers, appeared in films like Everybody Dance (1936), A Day At the Races (1937), and Hellzapoppin' (1941). Swing dancing continued after the swing era ended, later connecting with R&B and early rock and roll.
Like many new music styles, swing faced some resistance. Some people disliked its fast tempo, improvisation, and sometimes bold lyrics or energetic dancing. Audiences used to "sweet" music, such as that by Guy Lombardo, Sammy Kaye, Kay Kyser, and Shep Fields, found swing music too wild. Some critics considered swing more of a commercial product than art, while others, like Hugues Panassié, believed traditional New Orleans jazz was the true form of jazz, and swing was corrupted by commercial interests. Panassié also claimed that jazz was a unique expression of Black American culture, which white musicians or Black musicians interested in more complex ideas could not fully capture. In his 1941 autobiography, W. C. Handy wrote that "prominent white orchestra leaders… are making commercial use of Negro music… which is not a musical form." The Dixieland revival in the late 1930s, a return to New Orleans jazz, was a reaction against the big band swing style. Some swing bandleaders, like Tommy Dorsey and Bob Crosby, incorporated Dixieland elements into their music.
Between the lively "hot" style and the smoother "sweet" style, middlebrow interpretations of swing helped bands like those led by Artie Shaw, Glenn Miller, and Tommy Dorsey achieve great success. Miller's music, known for its sweet clarinet sound, also included upbeat and medium-tempo songs like "Mission to Moscow" and "Flying Home." Tommy Dorsey, called "The Sentimental Gentleman of Swing," added jazz elements by hiring musicians like Bunny Berigan and Sy Oliver.
New York became a key place for big bands to gain national recognition. Performances at ballrooms like Roseland and Savoy were signs that a swing band had become famous. The Count Basie Orchestra, during its 1937 Savoy Ballroom engagement, introduced the Kansas City style of swing, which focused on short musical phrases and solos, to the nation. Basie's band influenced later styles, including smaller "jump" bands and bebop. The Chick Webb Orchestra, known for the song "Stompin' at the Savoy," was closely tied to the Savoy Ballroom and competed in famous "Battles of the Bands." It challenged Goodman's band and had notable performances with the Ellington and Basie bands. In 1938, Goodman's Carnegie Hall Concert became a major event in swing history, with musicians from Basie's and Ellington's bands joining for a jam session. Coleman Hawkins, who returned to New York in 1939, recorded his famous version of "Body and Soul" and led his own big band. By 1940, top musicians like Charlie Parker, Dizzy Gillespie, Don Byas, Charlie Christian, and Gene Ramey, who had gained experience in swing, began developing the ideas that would lead to bebop.
1940s: Decline
In the early 1940s, changes in popular music and jazz began to signal the end of the swing era. Vocalists became the main attractions in big bands. Ella Fitzgerald joined the Chick Webb Orchestra in 1936 and helped make the band very popular. After Webb died in 1939, the band continued under Fitzgerald’s name. In 1940, Vaughn Monroe led his own big band, and Frank Sinatra became the star of the Tommy Dorsey Orchestra, exciting fans known as bobby-soxers. Peggy Lee joined the Goodman Orchestra in 1941 and quickly became its most famous performer on its biggest songs. Some big bands started moving away from the swing style that was popular in the late 1930s, due to both business and artistic reasons. Some bands focused on more gentle music with string sections, while others, like John Kirby, Raymond Scott, and Claude Thornhill, combined swing with classical music. Smaller bands became more common because they required fewer people and were easier to manage. Groups like the Savoy Sultans and others led by Louis Jordan, Lucky Millinder, Louis Prima, and Tony Pastor played an energetic style called “jump swing,” which later influenced the rise of R&B. In a 1939 article, Duke Ellington said he was unhappy with the creative direction of swing music. Soon after, he and other bandleaders explored more complex, less danceable forms of jazz, and soloists began to focus more on smaller groups and bebop. The Earl Hines Orchestra in 1943 included young musicians who were central to the bebop movement. The next year, they joined the Billy Eckstine Orchestra, the first big band to feature bebop. As the swing era declined, it left a lasting influence on music centered around vocalists, progressive big band jazz, R&B, and bebop.
The shift away from big-band swing was also affected by wartime conditions and disputes over music rights. In 1941, the American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers (ASCAP) asked for higher fees from radio stations, which refused. As a result, ASCAP stopped allowing its music to be played on the radio, limiting what listeners could hear. ASCAP also required approval for songs and solos played on live broadcasts, making swing music less appealing during this time. Big band swing remained popular during the war, but it became harder to support due to wartime travel restrictions, rising costs, and the military draft, which took many musicians. In July 1942, the American Federation of Musicians stopped recording music until record companies agreed to pay musicians royalties. This pause lasted over a year, ending in 1944 when new agreements were reached. During this time, vocalists continued to record with vocal groups, and older swing recordings were released again, showing the popularity of big band vocalists. Small band swing was recorded by specialty labels not affected by the recording ban. These labels had limited distribution, usually in large cities, which made it harder for larger ensembles to profit from recordings. In 1944, the government added a 30% tax on dancing nightclubs, which hurt the market for dance music in smaller venues.
1950s–1960s
From 1953 to 1954, swing bands and music sales decreased. In 1955, a list of top recording artists from the previous year was shared publicly. This list showed that big band music sales had dropped since the early 1950s. However, big band music experienced a revival during the 1950s and 1960s. One reason was the need for studio and stage orchestras to support popular singers in radio, television, and live performances. These bands had to adjust their styles for different settings, often using a calmer version of swing to back up vocalists. The growing popularity of Frank Sinatra with a gentle swing style in the mid-1950s helped this trend continue. This sound became linked to pop singers like Bobby Darin, Dean Martin, Judy Garland, and Nat King Cole, as well as jazz singers such as Ella Fitzgerald and Keely Smith. Many of these singers also performed in less swinging pop music from that time. The bands working in these settings often remained unnoticed, receiving credit after the main performers. Some orchestras, like those led by Nelson Riddle, Billy May, and Gordon Jenkins, became famous on their own, with Riddle especially known for his work with Sinatra and Cole. Swing-influenced pop music stayed popular until the mid-1960s, becoming part of the "easy listening" genre.
Big band jazz also returned during this time. The Stan Kenton and Woody Herman bands stayed popular during the 1940s and later, gaining recognition for creative arrangements and skilled musicians like Shorty Rogers, Art Pepper, Kai Winding, Stan Getz, Al Cohn, Zoot Sims, Serge Chaloff, Gene Ammons, and Sal Nistico. Lionel Hampton led R&B music in the late 1940s and later returned to big band jazz in the early 1950s, staying popular through the 1960s. Count Basie and Duke Ellington had reduced their big bands in the early 1950s but reorganized them by 1956. Ellington’s return to big band jazz was encouraged by the positive response at the 1956 Newport Jazz Festival. Both Basie and Ellington’s bands thrived creatively and commercially through the 1960s and beyond, with both musicians receiving praise for their work until they could no longer perform. Drummer Buddy Rich, after briefly leading a big band in the late 1940s, formed his famous big band in 1966. His name became closely tied to the energetic style of his ensemble. Other big band jazz groups that helped revive the genre in the 1950s–1960s included those led by Thad Jones, Mel Lewis, Quincy Jones, and Oliver Nelson. Today, big band jazz remains an important part of college jazz education programs.
Cross-genre swing
In country music, Jimmie Rodgers, Moon Mullican, and Bob Wills mixed swing and blues music to create a style called Western swing. Mullican left the Cliff Bruner band to start a solo career, performing songs that kept the swing rhythm. Later musicians, such as Willie Nelson and Asleep at the Wheel, continued using swing elements in country music. Asleep at the Wheel also recorded songs by Count Basie, like "One O'Clock Jump," "Jumpin' at the Woodside," and "Song of the Wanderer," using a steel guitar to replace the sound of horns. Nat King Cole followed Frank Sinatra in pop music, blending swing and ballads. Like Mullican, he helped make piano a central instrument in popular music.
Gypsy swing developed from the jazz violin style of Joe Venuti and Eddie Lang. In Europe, musicians like guitarist Django Reinhardt and violinist Stéphane Grappelli played this style. Their music includes songs from the 1930s, French pop, gypsy songs, and compositions by Reinhardt. However, gypsy swing bands differ from other styles: they do not use brass or percussion instruments. Instead, guitars and bass provide the foundation, with violin, accordion, clarinet, or guitar leading the music. Gypsy swing groups usually have no more than five members. Though they originated in different parts of the world, gypsy swing and Western swing share similarities, leading to musical fusions.
Rock musicians like Fats Domino and Elvis Presley included swing-era songs in their music, turning crooning ballads such as "Are You Lonesome Tonight" and "My Blue Heaven" into rock and roll hits. The doo-wop group the Marcels also had a hit with their energetic version of the swing-era ballad "Blue Moon."
Jethro Burns, a multi-genre mandolinist, played swing, jazz, and other styles on the mandolin. He created albums with jazz rhythms and swing chord progressions. He is often called "The Father of Jazz Mandolin."
1960s–2000: Big band nostalgia and swing revival
Although swing music was no longer the most popular style, fans could enjoy "Big Band Nostalgia" tours from the 1970s through the 1980s. These tours included bandleaders and singers from the swing era who were partially retired, such as Harry James and vocalist Dick Haymes. Radio shows that focused on old-style comedy, drama, and music also helped keep interest in swing music alive.
Dan Hicks and His Hot Licks, and later David Grisman, created versions of gypsy swing, which renewed interest in the style. Other swing revivals happened during the 1970s. The vocal group the Manhattan Transfer and singer Bette Midler included swing songs on their albums in the early 1970s. In Seattle, the New Deal Rhythm Band brought back 1930s swing music with comedic performances by vocalists Phil "De Basket" Shallat and Cheryl "Benzene" Bentyne. Bentyne left the New Deal Rhythm Band in 1978 to join Manhattan Transfer. The band's founder, John Holte, led other swing revival groups in Seattle until 2003.
A swing revival happened during the 1990s and 2000s, led by bands such as Royal Crown Revue, Big Bad Voodoo Daddy, the Cherry Poppin' Daddies, Squirrel Nut Zippers, Lavay Smith, and Brian Setzer. Many of these groups played neo-swing, a style that mixed swing music with rockabilly, ska, and rock. This music helped bring swing dancing back into popularity.
In 2001, Robbie Williams released an album called Swing When You're Winning, which mostly included popular swing songs. The album sold over 7 million copies worldwide. In November 2013, Robbie Williams released another album titled Swings Both Ways.
1990s–present: Swing house, electro swing, and swing pop
A modern development involves mixing swing music, including original songs or remixes of classic tracks, with hip hop and house music styles. Swing house is a type of swing music influenced by artists like Louis Jordan and Louis Prima. Electro swing is especially popular in Europe, and artists in this genre often include influences such as tango and the gypsy swing style of Django Reinhardt. Leading artists include Caravan Palace and Parov Stelar, who became popular in the late 2010s. Musically, the name "electro swing" can be misleading because it usually uses music from the 1920s Charleston era, even though it doesn't actually have a swinging rhythm. Both swing house and electro swing are linked to the revival of swing dances like the Lindy Hop.