The viola da gamba, also called the viol or gamba, is a string instrument played with a bow. It is held between the legs, which is why it is called "da gamba," meaning "on the leg" in Italian. It is different from the violin and viola da braccio, which came later. The viola da gamba is part of the viol family, which includes earlier string instruments with hollow wooden bodies, pegboxes, and strings that can be tightened or loosened to change pitch. These instruments usually came in sizes like treble, tenor, and bass, but also included smaller ones like pardessus and larger ones like contrabass (called violone).

The viol family is different from the violin family in how it looks and is played. When played, the viol’s neck points upward, and the rounded bottom faces downward to rest on the lap or between the knees. The viola da gamba uses the alto clef. Seven or eight frets made of stretched gut are tied around the neck. These frets can be adjusted, unlike those on a guitar, which helps musicians fine-tune the instrument and play notes more clearly.

Viols first appeared in Spain and Italy in the 1400s and 1500s. They were popular during the Renaissance and Baroque periods (1600–1750). Early ancestors include the Arabic rebab and the medieval European vielle. Later influences include the Venetian viole and the Spanish vihuela, a plucked instrument with six strings, similar to a lute and tuned like a modern viol. The rebab originally came from a Persian instrument called the rubāb.

Although bass viols look similar to cellos, they differ in several ways. Viols have flat backs, sloped shoulders, and c-shaped holes, while violins have curved backs, rounded shoulders, and f-shaped holes. Viols also have five to seven strings, compared to four on violins, and are tuned in fourths with a third in the middle, like a lute. They have frets and are played with an underhand bow grip.

Today, someone who plays the viol is called a gambist, violist, or violist da gamba. The word "violist" can be confusing because it is the same as the term for someone who plays the viola, a different instrument.

History

In the second half of the 15th century, vihuelists began using a bow to play their flat-topped, originally plucked instruments. Within two to three decades, this practice led to the creation of a new bowed string instrument that kept many features of the vihuela, such as a flat back, sharp waist-cuts, frets, thin ribs, and the same tuning. This instrument was called vihuela de arco, with arco meaning "bow" in Spanish. Some sources suggest that the playing posture of this instrument was influenced by Moorish rabab players.

Stefano Pio (2012) argues that new evidence shows the viol did not originate from the vihuela de arco in Aragon. Instead, he claims the viol evolved independently in Venice. Pio believes it is unlikely that Italian instrument makers, rather than Venetian ones, caused the rapid development of the vihuela de arco. However, within ten years, a new family of instruments called viola da gamba (viols) appeared in Italy. These included instruments of different sizes, some as large as the violoni, described by Prospero Bernardino in 1493 as "as big as a man."

Pio also notes that the fifth string of the viola da gamba is called a bordone (drone) in early music writings, such as those by Antonius de Leno, Silvestro Ganassi dal Fontego, and Giovanni Maria Lanfranco. However, this string is not a drone and is played like the others. Pio explains this by suggesting that a larger instrument, likely based on the medieval violetta, was developed in the late 15th century. This instrument added more strings to reach lower pitches. The fifth string was added to the neck, and later a sixth string (basso) was added to produce a deeper sound. Pio argues that the viola da gamba evolved from the smaller violetta or vielle, which originally had a fifth-string drone. The name bordone remained even after the string no longer functioned as a drone.

Ian Woodfield, in The Early History of the Viol, states that the viol did begin with the vihuela but that Italian instrument makers quickly adapted their advanced craftsmanship to the early version of the instrument after it was introduced to Italy.

Construction

Viols usually have six strings. However, some instruments from the 16th century had only four or five strings, and during the 17th century in France, some bass viols had a seventh lower string. Viols are (and are) strung with gut strings that have less tension than those on violin family instruments. Gut strings create a sound that is softer and sweeter compared to steel strings. Around 1660 in Bologna, gut or silk core strings wrapped with copper wire became available. These were used for the lowest-pitched bass strings on viols and other string instruments. In 1664, a type of string with copper wire woven into the gut fibers, called a "gimped" string, was introduced. This design resembled embroidery patterns of the same name.

Viols are fretted like early guitars or lutes, using movable gut frets that are wrapped around and tied on. A low seventh string was added to the bass viol in France by Monsieur de Sainte-Colombe (c. 1640–1690). His students included the French gamba virtuoso and composer Marin Marais. Also, a painting titled Saint Cecilia with an Angel (1618) by Domenichino (1581–1641) shows what may be a seven-string viol.

Unlike most violin family instruments, which are usually tuned in fifths, viols are typically tuned in fourths with a major third in the middle. This tuning mirrors that of the vihuela de mano and lute in the 16th century and is similar to the tuning of the modern six-string guitar.

Viols were first made similarly to the vihuela de mano, with flat slabs of wood joined together to form the top, back, and sides. Some viols, both early and later, had carved tops like those found on violin family instruments. The sides of early viols were usually shallow, reflecting the construction of plucked vihuelas. Over time, the depth of the sides increased, eventually resembling the deeper structure of classic 17th-century viol designs.

Most viols have flat backs with a sharp angle or canted bend near where the neck meets the body. This design tapers the back to fit the neck joint smoothly. Traditional construction used animal glue, and internal joints were often reinforced with strips of linen or vellum soaked in hot animal glue, a method also used in early vihuela construction. The peg boxes of viols, which hold the tuning pegs, were often decorated with carved animal or human heads or with spiral scroll finials.

The earliest vihuelas and viols, both plucked and bowed, had sharp cuts to their waists, similar to the shape of a modern violin. This was a new feature introduced in the mid-15th century and later used on many string instruments. It also helped show the connection between plucked and bowed versions of early vihuelas. Early viols did not have smooth-curved figure-eight bodies like plucked vihuelas or modern guitars. By the mid-16th century, "guitar-shaped" viols became common, and some survive today.

The earliest viols had flat, glued-down bridges like those on plucked vihuelas. Later, viols adopted wider, high-arched bridges that made it easier to bow single strings. Early viols also had flat fretboard ends resting on the top of the instrument. Once the fretboard ends were raised, the top could vibrate freely. Early viols did not have sound posts, which allowed the top to vibrate more freely, creating the characteristic "humming" sound of viols. However, the lack of a sound post also made their sound quieter and softer overall.

It is often believed that C-shaped holes (a type of sound port on string instruments) are a key feature of viols, distinguishing them from violin family instruments, which have F-shaped holes. However, this is not always true. The earliest viols had either large, round sound holes or round rosettes like those on lutes and vihuelas. Some had up to four small C-shaped holes, but most had two. These holes were often placed in the upper or lower bouts, facing inward. By the early 16th century, some viols used S-shaped holes, which later evolved into F-shaped holes. By the mid-16th century, C-shaped holes on viols faced outward, becoming a standard feature of the "classic" 17th-century design. Some viols also had flame-shaped Arabesques or round/oval ports, a feature common in German and Austrian viols, reflecting their plucked vihuela origins.

Historians, makers, and players usually separate renaissance and baroque viols. Baroque viols are more heavily built and include a bass bar and sound post, like modern string instruments.

The bow is held underhand with the palm facing upward, similar to a German double bass bow grip, but the hand is positioned away from the frog toward the balance point. The bow stick is generally curved outward, like violin bows of the time, rather than inward like modern violin bows. The "frog" (which holds the bow hair and adjusts its tension) is different from modern bows. Viol bows have an open frog that allows the hair to move, enabling a traditional technique where the performer uses fingers to press the hair away from the stick. This increases tension and controls articulation and tone.

Different versions

Viols come in seven sizes: "pardessus de viole" (a rare type used only in France and created after the 18th century), treble (called "dessus" in French), alto, tenor (called "taille" in French), bass, great bass, and contrabass (the last two are sometimes called "violone," meaning large viol). The smaller violone is tuned one octave below the tenor (called "violone in G," sometimes called great bass or "grande basse" in French). The larger violone is tuned one octave below the bass (called "violone in D" or "contrabass viol"). This instrument should not be confused with the double bass.

Their tuning (explained in the next section) includes both G and D instruments: pardessus in G, treble in D, tenor in G, bass in D (the seven-string bass was a French invention with an added low A), small violone in G, large violone in D, and the alto (a smaller version between the treble and tenor).

The treble is about the same size as a viola but has a deeper body. The typical bass is similar in size to a cello. The pardessus and treble were held vertically on the lap. The English made smaller basses called "division viols" and even smaller ones called "Lyra viols." The "viola bastarda" was a type of viol used in Italy for highly skilled performances. German "consort basses" were larger than French instruments made for continuo music.

Not all viols were equally common. A typical Elizabethan group of viols (called a "consort") had six instruments: two basses, two tenors, and two trebles, or one bass, three tenors, and two trebles (see "Chest of viols"). This shows that the bass, tenor, and treble were the most important for music written specifically for viols. The bass could also be played as a solo instrument (smaller basses like the division viol, lyra viol, and viola bastarda were made for solo performances) or used as a continuo bass. The "pardessus" was a French 18th-century instrument created so women could play music for violin or flute, but it later had its own music. The alto was a rare, smaller version of the tenor. The violones were rarely part of a viol consort but were used as bass or contrabass in many musical groups.

Tuning

The standard tuning for most viols is in fourths, with a major third between the middle strings (like the tuning of a Renaissance lute) or in fourths, with a major third between the second and third strings (like a modern guitar). The table below shows tunings that became widely used during the 20th and 21st-century revival of viols. (Lyra viol tunings are not included in this list.)

Alternative tunings, called scordatura, were often used, especially in the solo lyra viol playing style. This style included techniques such as chords and pizzicato, which were less common in group playing. A special type of pizzicato was called a thump. Music for the lyra viol was often written in tablature. There is a large collection of this music, some composed by famous musicians and much by unknown composers.

Many viol compositions were written before musicians widely used equal temperament tuning. The adjustable frets on viols allow players to make small changes to the instrument’s tuning. Some players and groups use meantone temperaments, which work better with Renaissance music. Some fretting systems use unevenly spaced frets to create better-sounding chords in certain keys. In some systems, the two parts of the gut string that form a fret are separated, letting the player play slightly sharper or flatter versions of a note (for example, G♯ instead of A♭) depending on the situation.

Treatises

Descriptions and drawings of viols appear in many musical books from the early 16th century. These books were written by:

• Sebastian Virdung: Musica Getutsch (1511)
• Hans Judenkünig: Ain schone kunstliche Vunderwaisung (1523)
• Martin Agricola: Musica instrumentalis deutsch (1528)
• Hans Gerle: Musica Teusch (1532)

Agricola’s and Gerle’s books were printed in multiple versions.

Later, several important books about the viol were written. The first was by Silvestro Ganassi dal Fontego: Regola Rubertina & Lettione Seconda (1542/3). Diego Ortiz published Trattado de Glosas (Rome, 1553), a significant book containing music for the viol, including examples of decorative musical notes and pieces called Recercadas. In England, Christopher Simpson wrote the most important book on the viol. The second edition, published in 1667, included both English and Latin text. This book has sections at the end that include valuable music pieces. A short time later, Thomas Mace wrote Musick’s Monument in England, which focuses more on the lute but includes an important part about the viol. After this, French books by Machy (1685), Rousseau (1687), Danoville (1687), and Etienne Loulie (1700) describe more advanced ways to play the viol.

Popularity

Viols were very popular, second only to the lute, though some people disagree. Like lutes, viols were often played by people who were not professional musicians. Wealthy families sometimes had a special chest that held one or more viols of different sizes. Groups of gamba players, called consorts, were common in the 16th and 17th centuries. These groups played both vocal music, such as consort songs or verse anthems, and music written specifically for instruments. Only the treble, tenor, and bass sizes were regular members of a viol consort, which could have three, four, five, or six instruments. Music for consorts was very popular in England during the Elizabethan era, with composers such as William Byrd and John Dowland. During the time of King Charles I, composers like John Jenkins, William Lawes, and Tobias Hume also wrote for consorts. The last known music for viol consorts before their modern revival was likely written in the early 1680s by Henry Purcell.

Mixed or broken consorts, also called Morley consorts, were perhaps even more common than pure viol consorts. These groups combined different instruments, forming a small band. They often included amateur musicians and typically featured a bass viol, lute, orpharion (a wire-strung lute with metal frets and a flat back), cittern, treble viol (or violin, as time passed), and sometimes early keyboard instruments like virginals, spinets, or harpsichords. The most common pairing was always the lute and bass viol, which were played together for centuries.

The bass viola da gamba remained in use as a solo instrument into the 18th century, often playing with the harpsichord in basso continuo. It was a favorite of Louis XIV and became associated with courtly style and French culture, in contrast to the Italian violin. Composers such as Marc-Antoine Charpentier, François Couperin, Marin Marais, Sainte Colombe, Johann Sebastian Bach, Johannes Schenck, DuBuisson, Antoine Forqueray, Charles Dollé, and Carl Friedrich Abel wrote music for it. Georg Philipp Telemann published his Twelve Fantasias for Viola da Gamba solo in 1735, when the instrument was becoming less popular. Viols eventually fell out of use as concert halls grew larger and the louder, more powerful violin family became preferred. In the 20th century, the viola da gamba and its music were revived by people interested in early music, including Arnold Dolmetsch.

The treble viol in D and the smaller pardessus de viole in G (often with five strings) were also popular in the 18th century, especially in France. Composers like Jean-Baptiste Barrière, Georg Philipp Telemann, and Marin Marais wrote music for these instruments. It was common to play music written for violins or flutes on small viols.

Many historic viols still exist, though few are in their original condition. They are often found in museum and university collections. Examples at The Metropolitan Museum of Art include:

• Division Viol by Barak Norman, London, 1692
• Bass Viol, labeled Richard Meares, London, ca. 1680
• Bass Viol by John Rose, ca. 1600, London
• English viol, unsigned, 17th century in excellent original condition
• Division Viol, School of Tielke, Hamburg, ca. 1720
• Bass Viol by Matthias Humel, 18th century, Nuremberg
• Bass Viol, Germany, 18th century
• Bass Viol by Nicolas Bertrand, Paris, 1720

• Painting by Abraham Bosse, Musical Society, French, c. 1635. This artwork shows amateur musicians playing a lute, bass viol, and singing, with music books on a table. It represents a type of broken consort with simple instrumentation.
• Portrait of French composer and viola da gamba master Marin Marais, by André Bouys, 1704.
• Portrait of Carl Friedrich Abel, composer and viol master—born in Germany but living in England most of his life—posed with his viola da gamba. By Thomas Gainsborough, c. 1765.
• Gambenspielerin (The Viola da Gamba Player), by Bernardo Strozzi, c. 1630–1640; the portrait shows composer Barbara Strozzi (1619–1677).
• Viol player in the Honfleur Église Sainte-Catherine, c. 1550–1600
• Viola da gambe and viola da braccio (viol of the leg and violin of the arm). Painting by Matthias Grünewald (1480–1528).

Modern era

During the 20th and early 21st centuries, the viol became more popular, especially among non-professional musicians, fans of early music, and in music schools. This growth may be because more affordable viol instruments became available through companies using automated production methods. Also, more early music scores and old music books became accessible. The viol is considered a good instrument for adults learning to play. Percy Scholes noted that viol music "belonged to an age that valued musical skill more than technical skill." Today, many groups exist for people interested in the viol. The first was the Viola da Gamba Society, founded in the United Kingdom in 1948 by Nathalie and Cecile Dolmetsch. The Viola da Gamba Society of America was created in 1962. Similar groups later formed in other countries. In the 1970s, the now-closed Guitar and Lute Workshop in Honolulu helped increase interest in the viol and traditional instrument-making methods in the western United States.

A youth viol group called the Gateshead Viol Ensemble includes young players aged 7 to 18. It is well known in northeast England and provides opportunities for young people to learn the viol and perform concerts locally and internationally. Groups like this show that the viol is becoming more popular again. A museum of historical musical instruments was created at the University of Vienna to help revive the viol. This museum, called the Orpheon Foundation Museum of Historical Instruments, has over 100 instruments, including about 50 playable violas da gamba. These instruments are used by the Orpheon Baroque Orchestra, the Orpheon consort, or musicians who borrow them long-term. The museum displays the instruments in temporary exhibitions, and violin makers study and copy them to learn more about the viol’s history and construction.

The 1991 film Tous les matins du monde (All the Mornings of the World), directed by Alain Corneau, highlighted the music of Monsieur de Sainte-Colombe and Marin Marais for the viola da gamba, introducing their work to new audiences. The film’s soundtrack, performed by Jordi Savall, became very popular. Modern viol players include Alison Crum, Vittorio Ghielmi, Susanne Heinrich, Wieland Kuijken, Paolo Pandolfo, Andrea de Carlo, Hille Perl, and Jonathan Dunford. Many modern viol ensembles, such as Fretwork, the Rose Consort of Viols, Les Voix Humaines, and Phantasm, also perform and record music. The Baltimore Consort focuses on Renaissance songs, often with groups that include viols.

Several contemporary composers have written music for the viol, and many musicians have commissioned new works. Fretwork has been especially active in this area, commissioning pieces from composers like George Benjamin, Michael Nyman, Elvis Costello, Sir John Tavener, and others. Many of these compositions are on their 1997 CD Sit Fast. The Yukimi Kambe Viol Consort and the New York Consort of Viols have also commissioned and recorded works by composers such as David Loeb, Bülent Arel, and Daniel Pinkham, with some pieces on their 1993 CD Illicita Cosa.

The Viola da Gamba Society of America has supported new music for the viol. It publishes a series called New Music for Viols and sponsors the International Leo M. Traynor Composition Competition. This competition, first held in 1989, encourages music for three to six viols, similar to Renaissance music, which is accessible to skilled amateur musicians. Winning pieces are performed and published by the Society. Its goal is to promote new music for the viol and keep its tradition alive today.

The Palazzo Strozzi in Florence asked composer Bruce Adolphe to create a piece based on poems by Bronzino, titled Of Art and Onions: Homage to Bronzino, which includes a significant viola da gamba part. Other composers who have written for the viol include Jay Elfenbein, Moondog, Kevin Volans, Roy Whelden, Toyohiko Satoh, Roman Turovsky, Giorgio Pacchioni, Michael Starke, Emily Doolittle, and Jan Goorissen. Composer Henry Vega wrote pieces for the viol, including Ssolo and Slow slower, performed by various ensembles. The Aston Magna Music Festival has commissioned works from composers like Nico Muhly and Alex Burtzos. Italian composer Carlotta Ferrari has written two viol pieces: Le ombre segrete (2015) and Profondissimi affetti (2016), the latter based on RPS modal harmony.

Since the early 1980s, instrument makers such as Eric Jensen, Francois Danger, Jan Goorissen, and Jonathan Wilson have created electric viols. These instruments use pickups or microphones to connect to amplifiers or PA systems, making them louder. Amplifiers allow performers to change the instrument’s sound using effects like reverb or a graphic equalizer. Electric viols range from Danger’s Altra line, which has minimal electronic features, to Jensen’s solid-body design. In the early 21st century, Ruby Instrument of Arnhem, Netherlands, developed the Ruby Gamba, a seven-string electric viola da gamba with adjustable nylon frets and a playing range of over six octaves. Contemporary musicians like Paolo Pandolfo, Tina Chancey, and Tony Overwater have used electric viols.

Similar names and common confusions

The viola da gamba is sometimes mistaken for the viola, which is the alto instrument in the modern violin family and is commonly used in symphony orchestras and string quartets. In the 15th century, the Italian word "viola" was a general term for any bowed instrument, or fiddle. The word "viola" was already in use in Italy before the vihuela, or first viol, was brought from Spain. In Italy, "viola" was first used to describe a braccio instrument that was an early version of the modern violin, as noted by Tinctoris in his writings around 1481–3. Later, the term was also used to describe the first Italian viols. Depending on the context, the term "viola da braccio" usually referred to either an instrument from the violin family or specifically the viola, which was called "alto de viola da braccio." When Monteverdi wrote "viole da braccio" in his opera "Orfeo," he was asking for violas as well as treble and bass instruments. Over time, the full name "alto de viola da braccio" was shortened to "viola" in some languages, such as English, Italian, and Spanish. Other languages, like French and German, used different parts of the phrase, such as "alto" and "Bratsche" (from the Italian "braccio").

Other instruments have "viola" in their names but are not part of the viola da gamba family. These include the viola d'amore and the viola pomposa. The baryton, though it does not have "viola" in its name, is sometimes grouped with the viol family. Whether it is considered a member of this family depends on how it is defined. It is closely related to the viola da gamba but would not be included in a group of instruments that play together in consorts. In Italy and Spain, the names "viola" and "vihuela" were used interchangeably. According to viol historian Ian Woodfield, there is little evidence that the vihuela de arco was introduced to Italy before the 1490s. The term "viola" was not used exclusively for viols in the 15th or 16th centuries. In 16th-century Italy, both early viols and violins developed at the same time. While violins, such as those made by the Amati family, reached their classic form before the middle of the century, the viol's design became standardized later in the century by English instrument makers.

Alternative names for viols include "viola da gamba," "viola cum arculo," and "vihuela de arco." The terms "vihuela" and "viola" were originally used in a general way, even including early violins (viola da braccio) under their names. Today, it is common for modern players of the viola da gamba to call their instruments violas and themselves violists. The term "alto violin" eventually became known simply as "viola," a change with historical reasons. The violin, or violino, was originally the soprano viola da braccio, or violino da braccio. Because the soprano violin was so popular, the entire group of instruments came to be called the "violin family." Other names for viols include "viole" or "violle" in French. In Elizabethan English, the word "gambo" (for gamba) appeared in many forms, such as "viola de gambo," "gambo violl," "viol de gambo," or "viole de gambo," used by figures like Tobias Hume, John Dowland, and William Shakespeare in "Twelfth Night." The terms "Viol da Gamba" and "Gamba" also appear as string family stops on the pipe organ. These stops produce sounds that imitate the sound of the viol da gamba.