Woodblock printing, also called block printing, is a method used to print text, images, or patterns. It was first developed in ancient China and was widely used in East Asia. This technique was originally used to print on fabric and later on paper. To create each page or image, a wooden block is carved so that only certain areas remain at the original level. These areas are then inked and printed, using a method called relief printing. Carving the blocks requires skill and effort, but many copies can be made once the blocks are ready.

The earliest known examples of woodblock printing on cloth in China date to before 220 AD. By the 7th century AD, this method was already being used in Tang China. It remained the most common way to print books, texts, and images in East Asia until the 19th century. A well-known type of Japanese woodblock art is called ukiyo-e. In Europe, most printed images made using this technique are called woodcuts, except for block books created mainly in the 15th century.

History

According to the Book of Southern Qi, in the 480s, a man named Gong Xuanyi claimed to have received a "jade seal jade block writing" from a supernatural being. He said that when he blew on paper, characters appeared without needing a brush. He used this ability to trick a local governor. Later, the governor’s successor dealt with Gong, likely by executing him. Timothy Hugh Barrett suggests that Gong’s jade block might have been an early printing tool, making Gong one of the first, if not the first, printers. However, colorful silk patterns printed using woodblocks from the Han dynasty (before AD 220) show that printing techniques existed earlier.

Inscribed seals made of jade and stone, as well as carved stone tablets, may have inspired the invention of printing. During the Han dynasty, copies of important texts were placed in public areas in Luoyang so scholars could copy them. The Suishu jingjizhi, a record from the Sui dynasty, includes early examples of ink rubbings that helped copy texts, possibly leading to printing. A stone inscription from the 6th century, carved in reverse, suggests it might have been a large printing block.

The spread of printing was greatly influenced by Mahayana Buddhism. Buddhists believed religious texts carried sacred power and could protect people from harm. Copying these texts helped Buddhists gain spiritual merit. By the 7th century, Buddhists used woodblocks to print ritual items, such as spells, which were not shared publicly but buried in sacred places. The earliest known printed Buddhist text is a fragment of a spell in Sanskrit, found in Xi’an and dated to the Tang dynasty (around 650–670 AD). Another example, the Saddharma pundarika sutra, was discovered and dated to 690–699 AD.

This period coincides with the reign of Wu Zetian, a Chinese ruler who supported printing for religious and spiritual purposes. The Longer Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra, which encouraged printing for merit, was translated during her rule. The oldest known woodblock print meant for reading is part of the Lotus Sutra, found in Turpan in 1906 and dated to Wu Zetian’s reign. The oldest printed text with a specific date is the Diamond Sutra, discovered in Dunhuang in 1907. It was printed in 868 AD and includes a note stating it was made for free distribution. This scroll is considered the world’s oldest securely dated woodblock print. Soon after, the first printed almanac, the Qianfu sinian lishu, was made in 877 AD.

In 2009, UNESCO recognized Chinese woodblock printing as an Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity. Evidence of woodblock printing soon appeared in Korea and Japan. A Buddhist spell, the Great Dharani Sutra, was found in South Korea in 1966 and dated to between 704 and 751 AD. In Japan, a dhāraṇī sutra was printed around 770 AD. Empress Shōtoku ordered one million copies of the sutra, each stored in a small wooden pagoda, known as the Hyakumantō Darani.

By 1000 AD, woodblock printing spread across Eurasia, including the Byzantine Empire. However, printing on cloth became common in Europe only by 1300 AD. Chinese blockprinting techniques reached Europe in the 13th century, after paper became available there.

Between 932 and 955 AD, many texts, including the Twelve Classics, were printed. During the Song dynasty, government agencies used woodblock prints to share standardized versions of important works, such as histories, philosophy, and medical texts.

In 971 AD, work began on the complete Buddhist Tripiṭaka Canon in Chengdu. It took 10 years to create 130,000 woodblocks for printing. The finished version, called the Kaibao Tripitaka, was printed in 983 AD.

Before printing, paper helped increase private book collections in China. Fan Ping (215–84) had 7,000 scrolls, and later collectors owned even more. By the Song dynasty, private libraries grew rapidly. Over 700 private collections existed, with some holding 10,000 to 100,000 scrolls. Many books were secular, including medicine guides and encyclopedias.

Imperial libraries, such as the Three Institutes, also expanded their collections. By 1127 AD, they held over 73,000 scrolls. Using printed books instead of handwritten ones saved the government money. In 1005 AD, Emperor Zhenzong and Xing Bing discussed the benefits of printing. In 1076, Su Shi noted how the abundance of printed books changed how people studied for exams.

Woodblock printing also changed how books were made. Scrolls were gradually replaced by concertina binding, a folded paper format, during the Tang dynasty.

Technique

Jia xie is a technique for coloring textiles, such as silk, using wooden blocks. This method was created in China between the 5th and 6th centuries. Two blocks are made, each with cut-out sections on the back covered with stoppers. The fabric, often folded multiple times, is placed between the blocks and held tightly. By removing the stoppers and adding different colored dyes to the sections, a colorful pattern can be printed across the folded fabric. However, this is not considered true printing because the pattern is not created by pressing the block onto the fabric.

The earliest known colored woodblock printing was on silk from the Han dynasty, using three colors. In China, the first known colored woodblock print on paper is a Diamond sutra from 1341, printed in black and red at the Zifu Temple in Hubei province. The oldest dated book with more than two colors is Chengshi moyuan, a book about ink-cakes printed in 1606. This technique became most advanced in art books from the early 17th century. Examples include Hu Zhengyan's Treatise on the Paintings and Writings of the Ten Bamboo Studio from 1633, and the Mustard Seed Garden Painting Manual published in 1679 and 1701.