Pérotin (fl. c. 1200) was a composer connected to the Notre Dame school of polyphony in Paris and the ars antiqua musical style of the high medieval period. He helped develop the complex musical techniques used by his predecessor, Léonin, including the use of three and four-part harmonies.

Most information about Pérotin’s life comes from two sources. First, music theorist Johannes de Garlandia briefly mentioned him in his work De Mensurabili Musica. Second, a pseudonymous English student, known as Anonymous IV, wrote about Pérotin. Anonymous IV listed seven titles from a work called the Magnus Liber, including Viderunt omnes, Sederunt principes, and Alleluia Nativitas. These titles match surviving musical compositions. Anonymous IV also called Pérotin Magister Perotinus ("Pérotinus the Master"), indicating he had the authority to teach. It is believed Pérotin was French and that his name was a short form of "Peter." However, efforts to identify him in historical documents are not certain.

Identity and career

Pérotin, about whom little is known, was likely alive near the end of the 12th century and the start of the 13th century. He is believed to have been French. The only information about his life comes from two sources written much later: a short mention by the music theorist Johannes de Garlandia (active around 1270–1320) in his work De Mensurabili Musica, and four references in the writings of a late 13th-century English student known as Anonymous IV. At one time, it was thought that Anonymous IV was a student of Johannes de Garlandia, but this is unlikely. The name "Anonymous IV" is a mistake, taken from the title of notes by Charles-Edmond-Henri de Coussemaker, Anonymus IV. These notes were probably taken during a lecture.

Many people have tried to connect Pérotin with members of the Notre Dame administration, but these ideas are not widely accepted. Some names, like Petrus Cantor (died 1197), a theologian, and another Petrus who was a Succentor at Notre Dame around 1207–1238, have been suggested. Petrus Succentor is considered more likely, partly because of the timeline and his role in overseeing religious services at the cathedral (whose choir was built in 1182). However, this remains a guess based on assumptions about Pérotin’s position in the cathedral.

Pérotin is seen as the most important member of the Notre Dame school of polyphony, a group of composers who worked near the cathedral in Paris from about 1160 to 1250. They created the ars antiqua style of music. The dates of Pérotin’s life and work have been debated, but most scholars believe he lived from around 1155/60 (or earlier) to about 1200/05 (or later). This is based on the development of French choral music during this time, especially because Pérotin’s works seem to appear before the rise of the French motet after 1210.

Pérotin is one of the few composers from his time whose name is known and can be linked to specific compositions. Most of his works have been written down. Anonymous IV called him Magister Perotinus ("Pérotinus the Master"), a title also used by Johannes de Garlandia. This title means Pérotin, like Léonin, earned a degree called magister artium, likely in Paris, and was allowed to teach. Only Anonymous IV used the term Perotinus Magnus ("Pérotinus the Great"). The name Perotinus is a Latin version of Pérotin, which comes from the French name Pierre. However, Petrus was a common name in the Ile de France during the High Middle Ages, making it hard to identify him further. The use of a diminutive (a smaller or nickname form of the name) was likely a sign of respect from his peers. The title Magnus shows how highly he was regarded, even after his death.

Historical context

During the reign of Louis VII, from 1137 to 1180, a time of cultural innovation occurred. This period saw the rise of the Notre Dame school of musical composition, where Léonin created two-part choral settings (organum) for major religious festivals. This time in music history is considered a major change, leading to advancements in musical notation and rhythmic composition. Key developments included the creation of organum, clausula, conductus, and motet. The Notre Dame style differed from earlier music, such as that of the Abbey of St Martial, Limoges, by moving from monophonic (single-voice) Gregorian chant to polyphony (multiple voices singing at once). This marked the start of polyphonic church music in Europe. At its simplest, organum involved doubling a chant melody with a second voice at intervals of a fourth or fifth above or below. This school also changed how music was preserved, moving from temporary performances to written music on parchment, which could be saved and shared. It introduced the idea of composers and compositions, the use of more than two voices, and the inclusion of non-religious texts. For the first time, rhythm became as important as pitch, leading to the term musica mensurabilis (measurable music). These changes and the notation system that developed formed the basis for musical practices for centuries. Surviving manuscripts from the 13th century, along with writings about music theory, define the musical era known as ars antiqua. The Notre Dame musical style spread across Europe. In Paris, polyphonic music was performed in the late 1190s, though some compositions may date back to the 1160s. Although often connected to the construction of the Notre Dame Cathedral, which began in 1163 and had its altar consecrated in 1182, musical creativity at the site started earlier, in the early 12th century.

Léonin’s work included two styles of organum: purum and discantus. Early polyphonic organum was based on Gregorian chant, with a second voice added. The original chant was called the tenor (cantus firmus or vox principalis), meaning "holding" the melody. The tenor used existing plainchant melodies from religious services, such as the Alleluia, Verse, or Gradual from the Mass, or a Responsory or Benedicamus from the Office. This use of plainchant was a key feature of 13th-century music. In organum purum, the tenor part used long, sustained notes, while the upper part (duplum) had more flexible rhythms and melismatic phrases (multiple notes per syllable). In discantus, the tenor also used melismatic notes, and both voices had quicker, more regular rhythms. These rhythmic sections were called clausulae (puncta). Another change was the standardization of musical note shapes, with Léonin’s square notes becoming widely used. Though he developed the discantus style, Léonin was most known for his organum purum compositions. By the mid-13th century, singing organa became less common. Johannes de Garlandia, associated with the Notre Dame school, wrote De mensurabili, a treatise explaining the theory behind Notre Dame polyphony, which was based on musica mensurabilis (measurable music). In his work, he described three types of polyphony: organum in speciali, copula, and discant, each defined by how voices interacted and their rhythmic patterns.

Léonin collected his compositions into a book called the Magnus liber organi (Great Organum Book), around 1160. This collection, which included early polyphonic church music, was kept in the Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris. The book also featured works by Léonin’s successors. In addition to two-part organa, it included three- and four-part compositions in four forms: organum, clausulae, conducti, and motets, and three styles. In the organum style, upper voices moved freely over a tenor voice with long, unmeasured notes. In the discant style, the tenor used measured notes, though slower than the upper voices. The third style had all voices moving note by note, mostly in conductus. The surviving manuscripts begin with a four-voice organal version of the Christmas Gradual, Viderunt omnes fines terrae ("All the ends of the earth have seen"), likely composed by Pérotin. However, the surviving manuscripts and fragments date to the 13th century, meaning they were notated by later musicians, not Léonin or Pérotin themselves. This collection represents the earliest known record of polyphonic music, achieving the same stability and widespread use as earlier monophonic Gregorian chant.

Music

Louis VII was followed by his son, Philip II, in 1179. Philip’s rule was shaped by the cultural changes that had occurred during his father’s time. During this period, the music of Pérotin began to appear, and there was a shift toward a style called discantus, where voices move note by note. Pérotin is most famous for writing both religious and non-religious music, with voices moving in harmony. He developed styles called organum triplum and organum quadruplum, which involve three or four voices singing together. His works, such as Viderunt omnes and Sederunt principes et adversum me loquebantur, are among the few known examples of four-part polyphony. Earlier music had mostly used two-part compositions. As more voices were added, these pieces became known as motets, which became the most important form of polyphony during this time. Pérotin’s two Christmas-related works are considered the pinnacle of his style, featuring complex harmony and interplay between voices. He also helped improve musical notation, making it less reliant on improvisation. However, little is known about how these works were created.

In addition to his own compositions, Pérotin revised a book called the Magnus liber organi. Léonin had added a second voice to the music, which required fast singing and made the text progress slowly. Pérotin shortened these sections and added more voices to enhance the harmony. The phrase "abbreviavit eundem" from a scholar named Anonymous IV has led to debate about whether Pérotin shortened the book or simply replaced parts of it with shorter versions. Some 154 sections are attributed to Pérotin, though others are more elaborate and do not match the idea of shortening. Some scholars suggest that Pérotin may have rewritten the book using a more advanced system of rhythmic notation, including mensural notation, as mentioned by Anonymous IV.

Two styles emerged from the two-voice organum: "florid" and "discant." The florid style was typical of Léonin, while the discant style was associated with Pérotin, though this connection is not certain. Anonymous IV called Léonin "the best composer of organa" but referred to Pérotin as "the best discantor," highlighting his work in the discant style. In discant organum, the second voice follows the main melody note by note, usually a fourth above it. In contrast, the florid style uses shorter notes in the upper voice to weave around the longer notes of the lower melody.

Anonymous IV listed several works attributed to Pérotin, including the four-voice Viderunt omnes and Sederunt principes, and the three-voice Alleluia "Posui adiutorium" and Alleluia "Nativitas". A scholar named Johannes de Garlandia noted that the Magnus Liber begins with Pérotin’s four-part compositions, specifically mentioning the three-part Alleluia "Posui adiutorium". Later scholars, such as Heinrich Husmann, have also attributed other works to Pérotin based on style, including two-voice pieces like Dum sigillum summi Patris and a monophonic piece called Beata viscera in the conductus style. Conductus music sets rhymed Latin poems to a repeated melody, similar to a hymn. By tradition, the four-voice compositions of the Notre Dame school are credited to Pérotin, while the two-voice pieces are attributed to Léonin. The most well-known works are Viderunt omnes and Sederunt principes, which are seen as the peak of musical development at the time.

Most of Pérotin’s music uses a polyphonic style called discant, including four- and three-part compositions. In this style, the upper voices move rhythmically above the sustained lower notes. This matches Anonymous IV’s description of Pérotin as "the best discantor." However, like Léonin, Pérotin may have composed in all musical styles known during the Notre Dame period. Dates for Pérotin’s activity are estimated from edicts by Bishop Odo of Paris (1196–1208) from 1198 and 1199. The bishop aimed to reform Christmas rituals, banning noisy performances and promoting elaborate music, such as four-part Viderunt omnes for Christmas 1198 and Sederunt principes for Saint Stephen’s Day 1199. These compositions likely date to around 1198–1199.

Pérotin also composed music for poems by Philippe le Chancelier, the cathedral’s chancellor, who held the title from 1218 until his death in 1236. This suggests that Pérotin’s setting of Beata viscera may have been written around 1220 or earlier. However, some scholars believe this poem was composed much earlier, placing Pérotin’s death no later than 1205. The bishop’s edicts and the Magnus Liber support the idea that Pérotin’s key works were created between 1180 and 1200. Philip the Chancellor is also credited with helping develop the motet, a form of polyphonic music.

Works

Anonymous IV listed seven works that he likely thought were important, and these are the only direct attributions. Later writers assigned works based on style and time period. These include Friedrich Ludwig (1910), Heinrich Husmann (1940), Hans Tischler (1950), and Ethel Thurston (1970). Husmann added nine more three-part organa and five clausula, while Ludwig added many other clausula. Other writers have credited all three-part organa in the Magnus Liber to Pérotin, which is unlikely. However, two of the three known four-part organa can be linked to him.

Key: Anonymous IV (A), Johannes de Garlandia (G), Tischler (Ti), Thurston (Th), Husmann (H). Numbers refer to pages in the F manuscript of the Magnus Liber.

• Four-part organa: Viderunt omnes (continued with organal motet Homo cum mandato) (A)(Ti)(Th)(H) F1; Sederunt principes (with organal motet De Stephani roseo) (A)(Ti)(Th)(H) F1; Sederunt principes (continued with organal motet Adesse festina) (A)(Th)(H)
• Three-part organa: Alleluia nativitas (A)(Ti)(Th)(H) F31; Alleluia, Posui adiutorium (A)(G)(Ti)(H) F36; Alleluia, Dies sanctificatus (Ti); Alleluia, Pascha nostrum (Ti)(H); Alleluia, Dilexit Andream (H); Stirps Yesse (Ti); Virgo (Ti)(H); Sancte Germane (H); Terribilis (H); Exiit sermo (H)
• Conductus: French conductus motet Se i'ai ame: Ex semine (Th); 3-part conductus Salvatoris hodie (A)(Ti)(Th)(H) F307; 2-part conductus Dum sigillum summi patris (A)(Ti)(Th)(H) F344; 1-part conductus Beata viscera Marie virginis (A)(Ti)(Th)(H); 5-part Benedicamus Domino (Ti) (3 (H))
• 3-part clausulas: In odorem (H); Et illuminare (H); Et gaudebit (H); Et exaltavi (H)
• 2-part clausulas: (numerous (H)) – uncertain
• 4-part clausula: Mors (H)

Influence

Pérotin is considered the first modern composer in the Western tradition. He changed the way music was created by moving from a style that relied heavily on making up music as it was played to a more structured and planned approach. His musical style has had an influence on modern composers like Steve Reich, especially in Reich's piece called Proverb.

Recordings

• Chanticleer (1991). Psallite! A Renaissance Christmas (CD in Latin). Perotin (1991). Benedicamus Domino. Retrieved 16 January 2019. (Available in audio and visual formats)
• Gothic Revolution – Sacred Music The Sixteen, Harry Christophers, Simon Russell Beale. CORO DVD
• Messe de la Nativité de la Vierge. Ensemble Organum, Marcel Pérès. Harmonia Mundi 901538 (1995).
• Perotin. The Hilliard Ensemble. CD ECM New Series, 837–751–2
• Sacred Music From Notre-Dame Cathedral. Tonus Peregrinus; Antony Pitts. CD NAXOS 8.557340 (2005)