Music performed a cappella (pronounced AH-kə-PEL-ə in the US and AK-ə-PEL-ə in the UK; in Italian, [a kkapˈpɛlla]; literally meaning "in the style of the chapel") is music sung by one person or a group without any instruments. The term a cappella was first used to describe music from the Renaissance and Baroque periods that had different styles. In the 1800s, people became interested again in Renaissance music. However, they did not know that instruments were often used to support vocal parts in that time. This led to the term a cappella being used to describe music sung without instruments. Rarely, the term is also used as another word for alla breve.
Early history
Studies show that early humans might have used singing and vocables to communicate before language was invented. The earliest known instructions for performing music were discovered on a cuneiform tablet dating back to around 2000 BC. The oldest surviving complete musical piece is from the first century AD and is a song from Greece named the Seikilos epitaph.
Religious origins
A cappella music was first used in religious songs, including church music, anasheed, and zemirot. Gregorian chant is an example of a cappella singing, as are many songs from the Renaissance. The madrigal, before it was often played with instruments in the Baroque period, was usually a cappella. Some early songs had string instruments, but Jewish and early Christian music was mostly a cappella. Over time, the use of instruments grew in these religions and in Islam.
Christian a cappella music with multiple voices began in Europe around the 9th century with a style called organum. This style became more complex between the 14th and 16th centuries, with composers like Guillaume Du Fay, Johannes Ockeghem, and Josquin des Prez. Early a cappella music sometimes included wind or string instruments or organs. By the 16th century, a cappella music changed as cantatas became more common. However, a cappella music still influenced church composers. Some early works by Palestrina, such as those for the Sistine Chapel, were meant to be played with an organ alongside voices.
Other composers, like Claudio Monteverdi and Andrea Gabrieli, used a cappella styles in some of their music. Heinrich Schütz used a cappella in many pieces, especially those related to Easter and the Passion. His works included parts where the crowd sang and parts where solo voices performed plainchant.
In the Byzantine Rite of the Eastern Orthodox Church, Eastern Lutheran Churches, and Eastern Catholic Churches, music during religious services is always sung without instruments. In the late 17th century, Russian composers adapted Venetian-style music into a cappella forms. Famous composers like Peter Tchaikovsky, Sergei Rachmaninoff, and Mykola Leontovych wrote a cappella music for religious services.
The use of instruments in Christian worship has caused division. Instruments were seen as a Roman Catholic innovation and were not widely used until the 18th century. Some Protestant Reformers, like Martin Luther and John Calvin, opposed their use in worship. Opponents argue that early church worship, as described in the New Testament and for the first six centuries, did not include instruments. Some believe the absence of instruments in early worship was intentional, while others think it was not required by scripture.
Those who do not follow the regulative principle believe churches can use instruments or not, as long as it aligns with their beliefs. They argue that the New Testament never forbids instruments. However, some Church Fathers in the 2nd century began opposing instruments. Modern Christians often accept the use of instruments in worship, but early Church Fathers did not make exceptions. Written opposition to instruments in worship started near the turn of the 5th century.
A cappella singing introduced polyphony, where multiple voices sing together without instruments. This led some Protestant reformers, like Calvin and Zwingli, to oppose both instruments and polyphony. Some Holiness Churches, such as the Free Methodist Church, banned instruments in worship until the mid-20th century. Today, many religious groups, including some Oriental Orthodox Churches, Anabaptist communities, and Churches of Christ, use a cappella music in their services. Sacred Harp, a type of folk music, is also sung a cappella with shape notes at singing conventions.
Traditional Jewish religious services did not use instruments because of the practice of scriptural cantillation. Instruments are also traditionally not used on the Sabbath to avoid the need to repair or tune them.
In the United States
Peter Christian Lutkin, who was the dean of the Northwestern University School of Music, helped make a cappella music more popular in the United States. He started the Northwestern A Cappella Choir in 1906. This choir was "the first lasting group of its kind in America."
In 1911, F. Melius Christiansen, a music teacher at St. Olaf College in Minnesota, began a tradition of a cappella music. The St. Olaf College Choir started as part of the local St. John's Lutheran Church, where Christiansen was the organist. Some members of the choir were students from St. Olaf College. The success of this choir inspired other music teachers in the area. Over time, colleges like Concordia College, Augustana College, Waldorf University, Luther College, Gustavus Adolphus College, and Augsburg University also started a cappella choirs. These choirs usually have between 40 and 80 singers. They work hard to make their singing sound smooth, in tune, and well-paced.
Over the past 100 years, a cappella music has included styles like barbershop and doo-wop. Organizations such as the Barbershop Harmony Society, Sweet Adelines International, and Harmony, Incorporated host events and contests to teach and celebrate a cappella music.
Many a cappella groups are found in high schools and colleges. Some groups are amateur, like those in the Barbershop Harmony Society, while others are professional and sing a cappella only. A cappella means singing without instruments, but some groups use their voices to sound like instruments. Other groups focus on harmonizing. A cappella music includes styles like gospel, contemporary, and barbershop.
The Contemporary A Cappella Society (CASA) helps support competitions and events by collecting money from former students.
A cappella music became more popular between the late 2000s and the early to mid-2010s because of shows like The Sing-Off and movies like Pitch Perfect.
In July 1943, because of a strike by the American Federation of Musicians, the a cappella group The Song Spinners had a hit song called "Comin' In on a Wing and a Prayer." In the 1950s, groups like The Hi-Los and the Four Freshmen added complex jazz harmonies to a cappella performances. The King's Singers helped promote small-group a cappella performances in the 1960s. Frank Zappa, who loved doo-wop and a cappella, released The Persuasions' first album in 1970. Judy Collins sang "Amazing Grace" a cappella. In 1983, The Flying Pickets had a Christmas number one in the UK with a cover of "Only You." A cappella music became more popular again in the late 1980s, thanks to songs by artists like The Manhattan Transfer, Bobby McFerrin, and *NSYNC.
Today, many a cappella groups use vocal percussion or beatboxing to create sounds similar to pop, rock, or gospel music. Examples include Straight No Chaser, Pentatonix, and Rockapella. Some Christian music groups also sing a cappella because they do not use instruments during worship. Examples include Take 6 and Glad and Acappella. In small groups, one person sings the main melody, another sings a rhythmic bass line, and the others add harmony or layered sounds.
A cappella can also describe the vocal parts in a song that were recorded separately from the instruments. These parts can be remixed or used by DJs. For example, Jay-Z's Black Album was remixed with The Beatles' White Album to create The Grey Album.
On their 1966 album Album, Peter, Paul and Mary sang "Norman Normal." All the sounds in the song, including instruments, were made by Paul's voice.
In 2013, an artist named Smooth McGroove became famous for singing a cappella covers of video game music on YouTube. In 2015, Jacob Collier, a multi-instrumentalist, created an a cappella version of "Jerusalem" for the England Rugby World Cup campaign.
A cappella has been used as the only music in four musical theater shows that performed Off-Broadway. The first was Avenue X, which opened in 1994 and ran for 77 shows. It told the story of a doo-wop group in the 1960s.
In 2001, Dragaella!, a musical starring The Kinsey Sicks, was performed Off-Broadway. It received awards and was praised by critics.
The musical Perfect Harmony tells the story of two high school a cappella groups competing for a national championship. It opened Off-Broadway in 2010 and features songs by artists like The Jackson 5 and Pat Benatar.
The musical In Transit premiered in 2010 and is set in the New York City subway. It uses beatboxing and mixes different music styles. It won awards and later became the first a cappella musical to perform on Broadway in 2016.
Barbershop music is one of several musical styles that are unique to the United States.
In other countries
The Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan does not have an official anthem because the Taliban considers music to be un-Islamic. Instead, the acting national anthem of Afghanistan is an a cappella song called a nasheed, as musical instruments are largely banned for being seen as un-Islamic.
In Iran, the first a cappella group was the Damour Vocal Band, which performed on national television even though there was a rule against women singing.
In Pakistan, the musical show Strepsils Stereo is credited with introducing the art of a cappella singing.
In Sri Lanka, composer Dinesh Subasinghe became the first person from the country to write a cappella music for SATB choirs. He created two pieces, The Princes of the Lost Tribe and Ancient Queen of Somawathee, for different choirs. These works were based on historical events in ancient Sri Lanka. A professional a cappella group called Voice Print also exists in Sri Lanka.
In Europe, the a cappella tradition is especially strong in countries near the Baltic Sea, with Sweden being a major example. This was described by Richard Sparks in his 2000 doctoral thesis titled The Swedish Choral Miracle.
Over the past 25 years, Swedish a cappella choirs have won about 25% of the annual European Grand Prix for Choral Singing (EGP) competition. Despite its name, the EGP is open to choirs worldwide.
Richard Sparks explains that Sweden’s strong success in a cappella singing has several reasons. These include a long tradition of choral singing, a large portion of the population (about 5%) who regularly sing in choirs, the influence of Swedish choral director Eric Ericson, and the presence of many popular schools with high admission standards that require students to sing in choirs daily. This system began at Adolf Fredrik’s Music School in Stockholm in 1939 and has since spread across Sweden.
In the UK, a cappella singing has become more popular in recent years. Many university groups have formed, with students choosing a cappella as an alternative to traditional choral or chapel singing. This growth has been supported by organizations like The Voice Festival UK and the UK’s participation in the International Championship of Collegiate A Cappella.
Western collegiate
It is unclear exactly where collegiate a cappella began. The Rensselyrics of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (formerly known as the RPI Glee Club), established in 1873, is perhaps the oldest known collegiate a cappella group. The longest continuously singing group is probably The Whiffenpoofs of Yale University, which was formed in 1909 and once included Cole Porter as a member. Collegiate a cappella groups grew throughout the 20th century. Some notable historical groups formed along the way include Colgate University's The Colgate 13 (1942), Dartmouth College's Aires (1946), Harvard University's Krokodiloes (1946), Cornell University's Cayuga's Waiters (1949) and The Hangovers (1968), the University of Maine Maine Steiners (1958), the Columbia University Kingsmen (1949), the Jabberwocks of Brown University (1949), and the University of Rochester YellowJackets (1956).
All-women a cappella groups followed shortly, frequently as a parody of the men's groups: the Smiffenpoofs of Smith College (1936), the Night Owls of Vassar College (1942), The Shwiffs of Connecticut College (The She-Whiffenpoofs, 1944), and The Chattertocks of Brown University (1951). A cappella groups exploded in popularity beginning in the 1990s, fueled in part by a change in style popularized by the Tufts University Beelzebubs and the Boston University Dear Abbeys. The new style used voices to copy modern rock instruments, including vocal percussion ("beatboxing"). Some larger universities now have multiple groups. Groups often join one another in on-campus concerts, such as the Georgetown Chimes' Cherry Tree Massacre, a 3-weekend a cappella festival held each February since 1975, where over a hundred collegiate groups have appeared, as well as International Quartet Champions The Boston Common and the contemporary commercial a cappella group Rockapella. Co-ed groups have produced many up-and-coming and major artists, including John Legend, an alumnus of the Counterparts at the University of Pennsylvania, Sara Bareilles, an alumna of Awaken A Cappella at University of California, Los Angeles, Mindy Kaling, an alumna of the Rockapellas at Dartmouth College, and Mira Sorvino, an alumna of the Harvard-Radcliffe Veritones of Harvard University.
Jewish-interest groups such as Queens College's Tizmoret, Tufts University's Shir Appeal, University of Chicago's Rhythm and Jews, Binghamton University's Kaskeset, Ohio State University's Meshuganotes, Rutgers University's Kol Halayla, New York University's Ani V'Ata, University of California, Los Angeles's Jewkbox, and Yale University's Magevet are also gaining popularity across the U.S.
Increased interest in modern a cappella (particularly collegiate a cappella) can be seen in the growth of awards such as the Contemporary A Cappella Recording Awards (overseen by the Contemporary A Cappella Society) and competitions such as the International Championship of Collegiate A Cappella for college groups and the Harmony Sweepstakes for all groups. In December 2009, a new television competition series called The Sing-Off aired on NBC. The show featured eight a cappella groups from the United States and Puerto Rico vying for the prize of $100,000 and a recording contract with Epic Records/Sony Music. The show was judged by Ben Folds, Shawn Stockman, and Nicole Scherzinger and was won by an all-male group from Puerto Rico called Nota. The show returned for a second, third, fourth, and fifth season, won by Committed, Pentatonix, Home Free, and The Melodores from Vanderbilt University respectively.
Each year, hundreds of collegiate a cappella groups submit their strongest songs in a competition to be on The Best of College A Cappella (BOCA), an album compilation of tracks from the best college a cappella groups around the world. The album is produced by Varsity Vocals—which also produces the International Championship of Collegiate A Cappella—and Deke Sharon. According to ethnomusicologist Joshua S. Dunchan, "BOCA carries considerable cachet and respect within the field despite the appearance of other compilations in part, perhaps, because of its longevity and the prestige of the individuals behind it."
Collegiate a cappella groups may also submit their tracks to Voices Only, a two-disc series released at the beginning of each school year. A Voices Only album has been released every year since 2005.
In addition, from 2014 to 2019, female-identifying a cappella groups had the opportunity to send their strongest song tracks to the Women's A Cappella Association (WACA) for its annual best of women's a cappella album. WACA released an album every year from 2014 to 2019, featuring female-identifying groups from across the United States. The Women's A Cappella Association hosted seven annual festivals in California before ending operations in 2019.
South Asian a cappella features a fusion of music from the Indian subcontinent, which places it in the category of South Asian fusion music. A cappella is gaining popularity among South Asians with the emergence of primarily Hindi-English college groups. The first South Asian a cappella group was Penn Masala, an all-male group founded in 1996 at the University of Pennsylvania. The first co-ed South Asian a cappella was Anokha, from the University of Maryland, formed in 2001. The first South Asian A Cappella competition was "Anahat," hosted by the Indus student organization at UC Berkeley. Maize Mirchi, the co-ed a cappella group from the University of Michigan, became the first South Asian group to advance to ICCA finals in 2023.
The South Asian a cappella competitive circuit is governed by the Association of South-Asian A Cappella (ASA), a non-profit organization formed in 2016. The competitive circuit consists of qualifier "bid" competitions
Emulating instruments
In addition to singing words, some a cappella singers copy the sounds of musical instruments using only their voices. They use special tools called pitch pipes to help them match the correct musical notes. One of the first groups in the 20th century to do this was The Mills Brothers. Their recordings from the 1930s clearly showed that all instrument sounds were made with voices. More recently, the song "Twilight Zone" by 2 Unlimited was performed a cappella to match the music on the TV show Tompkins Square. Another well-known example is the theme song for The New Addams Family on Fox Family Channel (now Freeform), where the music was sung instead of played. Groups like Vocal Sampling and Undivided copy Latin music rhythms using only their voices. In the 1960s, the Swingle Singers used their voices to copy the sounds of musical instruments in Baroque and Classical music. Vocal artist Bobby McFerrin is famous for copying instrument sounds with his voice. The a cappella group Naturally Seven recreates entire songs by using vocal tones to represent every instrument.
Beatboxing, also called vocal percussion, is a technique used in a cappella music. It was introduced by the hip-hop community, where rapping is often performed without instruments. Vocal percussion has become common in modern a cappella arrangements.