Claudio Giovanni Antonio Monteverdi was born on May 15, 1567, and died on November 29, 1643. He was an Italian composer, choirmaster, and string player. He wrote both secular and sacred music and was a pioneer in creating opera. He is seen as an important figure between the Renaissance and Baroque periods in music history.

Monteverdi was born in Cremona, where he began his musical studies and wrote his first compositions. He started his career at the court of Mantua around 1590 until 1613. Later, he worked in Venice until his death. There, he was the choirmaster at the basilica of San Marco. His letters provide information about the life of a professional musician during that time, including issues like income, patronage, and politics.

Many of Monteverdi's works, including stage performances, have been lost. His remaining music includes nine books of madrigals, large religious compositions like the Vespers for the Blessed Virgin from 1610, and three complete operas. His opera L'Orfeo from 1607 is the oldest of its kind still performed today. Later in his life, he wrote operas for Venice, such as Il ritorno d'Ulisse in patria and L'incoronazione di Poppea.

Although he used Renaissance polyphony in his madrigals, Monteverdi made significant changes in musical form and melody. He introduced the basso continuo technique, which is a feature of the Baroque period. He often faced controversy but defended his new methods as part of the seconda pratica, different from the older, more traditional style called prima pratica.

Monteverdi's works were largely forgotten during the 18th and much of the 19th centuries. They were rediscovered around the start of the 20th century. Today, he is recognized as an important figure in European music history, and his compositions are frequently performed and recorded.

Life

Claudio Monteverdi was baptized in the church of SS Nazaro e Celso in Cremona on May 15, 1567. The church record lists his name as "Claudio Zuan Antonio," the son of "Messer Baldasar Mondeverdo." He was the first child of Baldassare Monteverdi, an apothecary, and his first wife, Maddalena (née Zignani). They married earlier in 1566. Claudio’s brother, Giulio Cesare Monteverdi (born in 1573), also became a musician. Baldassare and Maddalena had two other brothers and two sisters. Cremona was near the border of the Republic of Venice and close to the Duchy of Mantua, both places where Monteverdi later worked.

There is no clear evidence about Monteverdi’s early music lessons or whether he was part of the cathedral choir or studied at Cremona University. His first published work, a collection of sacred songs called Sacrae cantiunculae for three voices, was printed in Venice in 1582 when he was 15 years old. In his early works, he listed Marc’Antonio Ingegneri as his teacher. Ingegneri was the music director at Cremona Cathedral from 1581 to 1592. A music scholar named Tim Carter believes Ingegneri taught Monteverdi about music composition and how to play string instruments and sing.

Monteverdi’s early works also show he had connections outside Cremona. His second published work, Madrigali spirituali (Spiritual Madrigals), was printed in Brescia in 1583. His next works were madrigals, a popular type of music in the 16th century. His first book of madrigals, published in Venice in 1587, was dedicated to Count Marco Verità of Verona. His second madrigal book, published in 1590, was dedicated to Giacomo Ricardi, a leader in Milan, for whom Monteverdi had played the viola da braccio in 1587.

In the dedication of his second madrigal book, Monteverdi described himself as a player of the vivuola, an instrument similar to the viola da gamba or viola da braccio. In 1590 or 1591, he began working for Duke Vincenzo I Gonzaga of Mantua. In a dedication to the duke for his third madrigal book (1592), Monteverdi wrote that playing the vivuola helped him gain the duke’s favor. He compared his instrumental skills to "flowers" and his compositions to "fruit" that would grow to serve the duke better.

Duke Vincenzo wanted Mantua to be a center for music and hired talented musicians. When Monteverdi arrived, the court’s music director was Giaches de Wert, a musician from Flanders. Other notable musicians at the court included Salomone Rossi, his sister Madama Europa, and Francesco Rasi. Monteverdi married Claudia de Cattaneis, a court singer, in 1599. They had three children: two sons, Francesco (born in 1601) and Massimiliano (born in 1604), and a daughter who died shortly after birth in 1603. Monteverdi’s brother, Giulio Cesare, joined the court musicians in 1602.

After Giaches de Wert died in 1596, Benedetto Pallavicino became the court’s music director. Monteverdi was highly respected by Duke Vincenzo and traveled with him on military campaigns in Hungary (1595) and a visit to Flanders in 1599. His brother Giulio Cesare reported that Monteverdi brought back to Italy a style of music called canto alla francese, which may refer to French-influenced poetry. Monteverdi may have been part of Vincenzo’s group in Florence in 1600 for the wedding of Maria de’ Medici and Henry IV of France. At this event, Jacopo Peri’s opera Euridice was performed. When Pallavicino died in 1601, Monteverdi became the court’s music director.

At the start of the 17th century, Monteverdi faced criticism from the Bolognese theorist Giovanni Maria Artusi. In his book L’Artusi, overo Delle imperfettioni della moderna musica (1600), Artusi criticized Monteverdi’s use of harmony and musical modes, comparing them to older, traditional styles. Artusi tried to contact Monteverdi, but the composer did not reply. A pseudonymous supporter, "L’Ottuso Academico," defended Monteverdi. In the preface to his fifth madrigal book (1605), Monteverdi said his court duties prevented him from responding in detail. He promised to publish a work called Seconda Pratica, overo Perfettione della Moderna Musica (The Second Style, or Perfection of Modern Music), but it was never completed. His brother Giulio Cesare later explained that Monteverdi saw seconda pratica as a natural evolution of older styles, not a radical change.

The controversy with Artusi increased Monteverdi’s fame. His earlier madrigal books were reprinted, including in Copenhagen in 1605 and 1606. The poet Tommaso Stigliani praised Monteverdi in a 1605 poem. Adriano Banchieri, a composer and theorist, wrote in 1609 that Monteverdi’s music was highly expressive and deserved praise. A modern historian, Massimo Ossi, noted that by 1600, Monteverdi had already moved beyond the issues Artusi raised.

Monteverdi did not publish his promised treatise on seconda pratica, but letters from 1632 show he was still working on it, possibly under the title Melodia. He may have continued this work until his death in 1643.

In 1606, Duke Vincenzo’s son, Francesco, asked Monteverdi to write the opera L’Orfeo with a libretto by Alessandro Striggio for the 1607 Carnival season. It was performed twice in February and March 1607. Rasi, who had sung in the first performance of Euridice in 1600, played the title role. Monteverdi followed this with the opera L’Arianna in 1608, with a libretto by Ottavio…

Music

Music historians agree that the time from the mid-15th century to about 1625, described by Lewis Lockwood as a period with "shared ideas and style," is known as the Renaissance music era. Later, from around 1580 to 1750, this time is called the Baroque music era. Monteverdi’s creative work flourished during the late 16th to early 17th century, a time when these two periods overlapped. He is seen as a bridge between the Renaissance and Baroque styles.

During the Renaissance, music became a formal study, described by Lockwood as a "pure science of relationships." In the Baroque era, music became more about artistic expression and was used in religious, social, and festive events, with music supporting the words, as Plato suggested. A style called monody, where a single voice sings with instrumental support, became more important than polyphony, which used multiple voices. This was the environment in which Monteverdi worked. Percy Scholes wrote that composers of the time moved away from the complex choral style of madrigals and instead focused on simple, speech-like melodies with instrumental support.

Monteverdi’s first teacher, Marc’Antonio Ingegneri, was an expert in the musica reservata style, which used chromatic progressions and word-painting. Monteverdi’s early works were based on this style. Ingegneri was a traditional Renaissance composer, but Monteverdi also studied modern composers like Luca Marenzio and Giaches de Wert, learning how to express emotion in music. His early compositions, published between 1582 and 1583, showed skill but not much originality. Geoffrey Chew noted that his 1584 Canzonette collection used a modern, light style influenced by Marenzio.

The canzonetta form, a short musical piece, was often used by composers as practice. It appears in Monteverdi’s first madrigal book from 1587, which reflects Marenzio’s playful style and Luzzaschi’s use of dissonance. His second book, published in 1590, includes a modern poem by Torquato Tasso and an older text by Pietro Bembo, set in an old-fashioned style. The piece "Ecco mormorar l'onde" is praised as a masterpiece and shows influence from de Wert.

Monteverdi often used a technique called imitatio, where he borrowed ideas from other composers. He continued this practice even after his early years, which some critics say made his work seem less original.

Between 1592 and 1603, Monteverdi published his third, fourth, and fifth madrigal books. During this time, he worked in the Mantuan court and contributed to other collections. Some of his madrigals from the 1590s were later involved in the Artusi controversy.

The third book shows strong influence from Giaches de Wert, who was Monteverdi’s superior at the time. It includes poetry by Tasso and Giovanni Battista Guarini. Guarini’s verses, set with strong, final musical phrases, are noted by Geoffrey Chew as a key example of Monteverdi’s use of dissonance.

As the 1590s continued, Monteverdi moved closer to the seconda pratica style, which used expressive dissonance. In the madrigal "Ohimè, se tanto amate," Monteverdi used a vocal ornament called échappé, which was considered daring. His focus on the poet’s words sometimes took priority over musical structure.

The fourth book includes madrigals criticized by Artusi for their modern style. However, it is seen as rooted in 16th-century traditions. Monteverdi set poems by Tasso, Guarini, and others, showing knowledge of composers like Carlo Gesualdo and Luzzaschi. The book was dedicated to a Ferrarese music group.

The fifth book looks ahead to the Baroque era, using basso continuo and including an instrumental piece called a sinfonia. Monteverdi combined new expressive techniques with traditional polyphony.

Aquilino Coppini used music from Monteverdi’s third, fourth, and fifth books for his 1608 sacred works. In 1609, Coppini wrote that Monteverdi’s music required flexible rhythms, sometimes speeding up or slowing down during performances.

Historical perspective

During his lifetime, Monteverdi was highly respected by musicians and the public. This is shown by the grand funeral held for him: "With truly royal pomp, a structure for holding a coffin was built in the Chiesa de Padrini Minori de Frari, decorated in mourning colors, but surrounded by so many candles that the church looked like a night sky full of stars." However, this honor was temporary. Carter explains that in Monteverdi’s time, music was often forgotten after it was first performed. Monteverdi was an exception. His operas were performed again in several cities within a decade of his death. In 1651, Severo Bonini wrote that every musical family in Italy owned a copy of the Lamento d'Arianna.

The German composer Heinrich Schütz, who had studied in Venice under Giovanni Gabrieli before Monteverdi arrived there, owned a copy of Il combattimento and used elements of the stile concitato. During his second visit to Venice in 1628–1629, Arnold believes Schütz learned about basso continuo and expressive ways of setting words in music. Arnold also thinks Schütz was more directly influenced by younger Venetian composers, such as Grandi and Giovanni Rovetta, who later replaced Monteverdi at San Marco. Schütz published a book of Symphoniae sacrae, which set biblical texts in the style of seconda pratica, in Venice in 1629. A piece called Es steh Gott auf, from his Symphoniae sacrae II published in Dresden in 1647, includes direct quotes from Monteverdi.

After the 1650s, Monteverdi’s name was rarely mentioned in contemporary writings, and his music was mostly forgotten, except for the Lamento, which became the model for a genre that lasted into the 18th century.

Interest in Monteverdi grew again in the late 18th and early 19th centuries among music scholars in Germany and Italy, though he was still seen as a historical figure rather than a major influence. Greater attention to his music began in 1881, when Robert Eitner published a shortened version of Orfeo. Around the same time, Kurt Vogel arranged madrigals from original manuscripts, but more interest focused on operas after the discovery of the L'incoronazione manuscript in 1888 and Il ritorno in 1904. Because of Vincent d'Indy’s efforts, all three of Monteverdi’s operas were performed in some form during the first quarter of the 20th century: L'Orfeo in 1911, L'incoronazione in 1913, and Il ritorno in 1925.

The Italian poet Gabriele D'Annunzio praised Monteverdi in his novel Il fuoco (1900), writing, "the divine Claudio … what a heroic soul, purely Italian in its essence!" This view of Monteverdi as the true founder of Italian musical lyricism was later used by musicians connected to Benito Mussolini’s regime, including Gian Francesco Malipiero, Luigi Dallapiccola, and Mario Labroca, who contrasted Monteverdi with the music of Richard Strauss, Claude Debussy, and Igor Stravinsky.

After World War II, Monteverdi’s operas were performed in major opera houses and became part of the standard repertoire. His sacred music was revived later, as Monteverdi was not as closely linked to the 19th-century Catholic Church revival of Renaissance music as Palestrina was, perhaps because he was seen mainly as a secular composer. The 1610 Vespers were published in a modern edition in 1932, followed by Redlich’s revision in 1934. Modern editions of the Selva morale and Missa e Salmi were published in 1940 and 1942, respectively.

Public interest in Monteverdi’s music increased in the second half of the 20th century, especially during the early-music revival of the 1970s, when performances focused on "authentic" styles using historical instruments. The Gramophone magazine recorded over 30 versions of the Vespers between 1976 and 2011 and 27 versions of Il combattimento di Tancredi e Clorinda between 1971 and 2013. Today, Monteverdi’s operas are regularly performed; Operabase reports 555 performances of his operas in 149 productions worldwide between 2011 and 2016, ranking him 30th among all composers and 8th among Italian opera composers. In 1985, Manfred H. Stattkus created an index of Monteverdi’s works, the Stattkus-Verzeichnis (revised in 2006), assigning each composition an "SV" number for cataloging and reference.

Modern critics describe Monteverdi as "the most significant composer in late Renaissance and early Baroque Italy" and "one of the principal composers in the history of Western music," as well as the first great opera composer. These views reflect a modern perspective, as Monteverdi’s music was largely unknown to many composers for more than two centuries after his death. As Redlich and others note, it was 20th- and 21st-century composers who rediscovered Monteverdi and used his music as a foundation for their own. Some, like Chew, suggest that Monteverdi’s reputation as "a Modern, a breaker of rules" attracted later composers, though Monteverdi himself was a practical musician who used whatever tools were available. In a letter dated October 16, 1633, Monteverdi expressed his view of himself as a "modern": "I would rather be moderately praised for the new style than greatly praised for the ordinary." However, Chew concludes that Monteverdi balanced modern techniques with respect for traditional styles, making his work both innovative and rooted in the past. Monteverdi represents the late Renaissance while also reflecting