The clavichord is a keyboard instrument with strings that is shaped like a rectangle. It was used mainly during the Late Middle Ages, Renaissance, Baroque, and Classical periods. Historically, it was often used to help musicians practice and create music, as it was too quiet for big performances. The clavichord makes sound when small metal pieces called tangents hit brass or iron strings. Vibrations travel through bridges to the soundboard.
Etymology
The name "clavichord" comes from the Latin word clavis, meaning "key," which is related to the more common Latin word clavus, meaning "nail" or "rod." It also includes the word chorda, from the Greek χορδή, meaning "string," especially on a musical instrument. Similar names are used in other European languages, such as Italian clavicordio, French clavicorde, German Klavichord, Latin clavicordium, Portuguese clavicórdio, and Spanish clavicordio. Many languages also use names based on the Latin word manus, meaning "hand," such as Italian manicordo, French manicorde or manicordion, and Spanish manicordio or manucordio. Other names describe the clavichord's similarity to a monochord, a simple stringed instrument, such as Italian monacordo or monocordo, and Spanish monacordio. In Italian, the word sordino was sometimes used, referring to the instrument's quiet sound. The word sordino usually means "mute" in other contexts.
History and use
The clavichord was created in the early 1300s. In 1404, a German poem called Der Minne Regeln referred to the terms clavicimbalum (a word mainly used for the harpsichord) and clavichordium, calling them the best instruments for playing melodies.
One of the earliest mentions of the clavichord in England appears in the financial records of Elizabeth of York, queen of Henry VII, from August 1502.
The clavichord was widely used from the 16th century to the 18th century, especially in German-speaking areas, Scandinavia, and the Iberian Peninsula later in this period. It was no longer used by 1850. In the late 1890s, Arnold Dolmetsch revived the making of clavichords, and others, like Violet Gordon-Woodhouse, helped make the instrument popular again. Most clavichords built before the 1730s were small (four octaves, four feet long), but later models could be up to seven feet long with a six-octave range.
In the 18th century, the clavichord was favored because of its expressive features, size, elegance, and low cost. Its affordability made it a common choice for people learning to play the keyboard. Composers like Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756–1791) often carried clavichords on their travels to practice.
During the Mozart family’s visit to Augsburg, they met Johann Andreas Stein (1728–1792), a famous German keyboard maker, and bought a clavichord from him. In a letter to his friend Leopold Mozart (1719–1787), he described it as "A pretty little keyboard instrument, which does us good service for practicing on during our travels."
Until electronic amplification was developed in the 20th century, the quiet clavichord could only be used in small rooms. However, during its most popular time, playing music at home was a major part of people’s musical lives. In homes, the clavichord was ideal for solo keyboard music and accompaniment. Organists also practiced on pedal clavichords at home.
Today, clavichords are mainly played by people who enjoy Renaissance, Baroque, and Classical music. They are sold worldwide, and there are many clavichord societies. Over 400 recordings of the instrument have been made in the past 70 years. Modern musicians who have played the clavichord include Christopher Hogwood and Thurston Dart.
The clavichord has also been used in other music styles, such as in the Clavinet, a solid-body electric clavichord with magnetic pickups that connect to an amplifier. Stevie Wonder used a Clavinet in songs like "Superstition" and "Higher Ground." A Clavinet played through an amplifier with guitar effects is often linked to 1970s rock with a funky or disco style.
Guy Sigsworth played the clavichord with Björk in the studio recording of "All Is Full of Love." Björk also played the clavichord herself on the song "My Juvenile" from her 2007 album Volta.
Tori Amos used the clavichord on "Little Amsterdam" from the album Boys for Pele and on "Smokey Joe" from her 2007 album American Doll Posse. She also used the Clavinet on her 2004 recording "Not David Bowie," which was part of her 2006 box set A Piano: The Collection.
In 1976, Oscar Peterson played songs from Porgy And Bess on the clavichord with Joe Pass on acoustic guitar. Keith Jarrett recorded an album called Book of Ways (1986), where he played clavichord improvisations. The Beatles’ song "For No One" (1966) features Paul McCartney playing the clavichord. Rick Wakeman used the Clavinet on the track "The Battle" from the album Journey to the Centre of the Earth.
Structure and action
In the clavichord, strings stretch across from the hitchpin rail on the left side to tuning pegs on the right. Near the right end, the strings pass over a curved wooden bridge. The clavichord’s action is simple: each key acts as a lever with a small brass piece at the far end, shaped like the head of a flat-bladed screwdriver. The strings, usually made of brass or a mix of brass and iron, are often grouped in pairs, similar to a lute or mandolin. When a key is pressed, the brass piece hits the strings above, causing them to vibrate and produce sound in a way similar to plucking a guitar. Unlike a piano, the brass piece does not bounce off the string after striking it; instead, it stays in contact with the string as long as the key is held, both starting the sound and determining the string’s length, which sets the pitch. The loudness of the note can be changed by pressing the key harder or softer. The pitch can also be adjusted by changing how hard the brass piece presses against the string, a technique called Bebung. When the key is released, the brass piece moves away from the string, and the string’s vibration stops because of cloth strips that absorb sound.
The clavichord’s action is unique among keyboard instruments because one part of the mechanism both starts the string’s vibration and determines the string’s length, which defines the pitch. This close connection between the player’s hands and the sound production has led to the clavichord being called the most intimate of keyboard instruments. Although it has serious limitations, such as very low volume, it offers strong expressive power. The player can control how the note begins, how long it lasts, and how loud it is. The instrument also allows for subtle effects, such as increasing the tone’s volume gradually and a type of vibrato that is only found on the clavichord.
Fretting
Clavichords use strings that vibrate only from the bridge to the tangent. This allows multiple keys to share the same string, a process called fretting. Early clavichords often used many notes on a single string, sometimes with only one string for all notes, like the keyed monochord. Most clavichords, however, used triple- or double-fretting. Since only one note can be played on a string at a time, the fretting pattern is designed so that rarely used notes, like C and C♯, share a string pair. This system has benefits compared to unfretted instruments, including easier tuning (fewer strings to adjust), louder sound (though still not enough for chamber music), and a clearer tone. Disadvantages include the need to bend tangents to change tuning and the requirement for precise playing to avoid muffled sounds when notes on the same string are played quickly.
Some clavichords use a single string pair for each note. The first known mention of this was by Johann Speth in 1693, and the earliest surviving example was made in 1716 by Johann Michael Heinitz. These are called unfretted, while instruments that share strings for multiple notes are called fretted. Unfretted clavichords allow easier tuning adjustments and can play any written music without avoiding "bad" notes. However, they are quieter, require more strings to maintain, and often have a softer tone due to the increased number of strings on the bridge. Some large, late 19th-century Swedish clavichords, however, were the loudest of all historic clavichords.
Pedal clavichord
Clavichords were usually single keyboard instruments, but they could be placed one on top of another to create multiple keyboards. Adding a pedal clavichord, which had a separate pedal keyboard for lower notes, allowed clavichords to be used for practicing music written for organs. Typically, the pedal keyboard was connected to the lower notes of the manual clavichord using strings, so the feet could control those notes. During the time of pipe organs, which required people to operate bellows manually and were often not heated except during church services, organists used pedal harpsichords and pedal clavichords as practice tools (see also: pedal piano). Some music written for organs might have been intended for pedal clavichords. Speerstra (2004) suggests that Bach's "Eight Little Preludes and Fugues," which are now considered questionable in origin, may actually be genuine. The keyboard patterns in these pieces seem unsuitable for organs, but Speerstra argues they match the style of pedal clavichords. Speerstra and Williams (2003) also note that the keyboard range in Bach's six trio sonatas for organ (BWV 525–530) rarely goes below the tenor C, meaning they could have been played on a single manual pedal clavichord by shifting the left hand down an octave, a common practice in the 18th century.
Repertoire
The clavichord can play many types of music written for the harpsichord and organ between about 1400 and 1800. However, it is not loud enough to join in chamber music groups, except perhaps to support a soft baroque flute, recorder, or solo singer. Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach, the son of J. S. Bach, strongly supported the clavichord. Most of his German peers considered it an important keyboard instrument for performing, teaching, composing, and practicing. The way the clavichord is built can create challenges for some music, but research shows these challenges can be overcome when playing Bach’s Well-Tempered Clavier.
Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach, a leading composer of the "Sensitive Style," focused on expressing deep emotions in his music. The clavichord was especially good at showing these feelings because of its unique sound, sensitive touch, and ability to play very quiet details. While he also used the fortepiano, he preferred the clavichord’s features. In his 1759 book (Versuch über die wahre, Art das Clavier zu spielen), he wrote: "Of all keyboard instruments, the harpsichord and clavichord are most widely praised. The harpsichord is used for louder music, while the clavichord is used for softer pieces. Though newer pianofortes have advantages when well made, they require careful tuning. A good clavichord, despite its softer sound, can match the pianoforte’s appeal and also produce vibrato (Bebung) and portato (Tragen der Töne) through added pressure on the keys. A keyboard player’s skill is best judged on the clavichord."
Recent clavichord recordings by Christopher Hogwood, such as The Secret Bach, The Secret Handel, and The Secret Mozart, explore new ways to use the instrument. Hogwood noted that composers like Bach, Handel, and Mozart likely played the clavichord in private at home. In England, Herbert Howells composed two clavichord collections (Lambert’s Clavichord and Howells’ Clavichord), and Stephen Dodgson wrote two clavichord suites. A full list of modern clavichord works and recordings was published in 2024.
A note inside Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart’s clavichord, written by his wife Constanze Mozart, states that he composed several works, including The Magic Flute, La Clemenza di Tito, The Requiem, and a Masonic Cantata, on this instrument. Joseph Haydn also composed most of his masterpiece The Creation on the clavichord, using it to accompany vocal parts.