The music of ancient Rome was an important part of Roman culture from the beginning. Songs, called "carmen," were used in many social events. For example, the Secular Ode by Horace was written by Augustus and performed by a group of children at the Secular Games in 17 BC. Music was also played at funerals, and a musical instrument called the tibia (similar to the Greek aulos) was used during sacrifices to keep bad influences away. Because of Greek ideas, music was believed to show the order of the universe and was connected to mathematics and learning.

Etruscan music influenced Roman music early on. During the time of the Roman Empire, Romans shared their music with other regions, and traditions from places like Asia Minor, North Africa, and Gaul became part of Roman culture.

Music was used during public events, games in the arena, and in a type of performance called pantomimus. This performance combined dancing, instrumental music, and sung stories.

History

Ancient Roman music and singing began with Etruscan music and then Ancient Greek music. In the early years, it was mainly used for military purposes. Cicero said that the Roman musical tradition changed during the time of Numa Pompilius. The Greek philosopher and mathematician Pythagoras discovered the first 7 pitches in a scale, and this knowledge was used in the Roman Empire.

Music in society

Music played an important role in Roman religious rituals. It helped set the pace of the ritual and influenced how people felt. Different musical instruments had specific purposes in Roman religion. Ancient Roman art shows tibicines, who played the tibia, performing near altars. These musicians wore togas and head coverings while taking part in animal sacrifices. Some images show helpers holding acerra, which were cups or tankards, to assist the tibicines. The tibia was likely the most important instrument in the Roman Imperial cult. Tibicines also used music to block out background noise. To the Romans, it would have been unthinkable for a sacrifice to happen without music. Public prayers were usually accompanied by pipe music. Cymbals and drums were used in rituals for the goddess Cybele, and rattles were important in the cult of Isis. Female musicians, dancers, and singers performed at festivals honoring Isis, who had a temple in Rome. They also performed at festivals for the goddess Bona Dea. Many Roman monuments were dedicated to musicians. The Salian priests danced and sang through the city to honor Mars. Musicians played the flute to worship Mars. The Arval Brethren also sang and danced to honor the goddess Ceres. A Roman historian named Titus Livius described a time when flute players were not allowed to eat or drink in temples. Later, they were allowed to return after the Senate realized there were no musicians for religious events. Trumpeters and dancers were also part of the Pompa circensis, a parade that happened before religious festivals.

Music was a common form of entertainment in ancient Rome. It was important during Roman games. Gladiatorial fights began with the sound of horns and were accompanied by music. Musicians, often players of the tuba or large aerophones, performed during triumphs. The tibia was used to draw attention during ceremonies, and trumpets announced the arrival of the triumphator. Music was also used to quiet crowds. Pipe music was especially important in Roman theater. During plays, actors, pantomimes, and tragedians were supported by a chorus of singers and an orchestra of wind or percussion instruments. They danced to the music. Musicians could be removed from the stage for even small mistakes. The music helped show the emotions and traits of characters and the story's pace. Music also helped audiences remember the story.

Romans sometimes held private musical events called symphoniaci. These events were linked to lively parties in ancient Rome. A Roman consul named Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus, who lived in 58 BCE, was known for hosting such events. His home was described as filled with singing and cymbals. Private musicians were sometimes hired to entertain during meals or parties. These musicians were sometimes trained slaves. Ancient Roman women are shown singing and dancing in their homes. Women used different instruments than men, such as the harp, aulos, and small lyres. Emperor Domitian created contests that included music, gymnastics, and horse racing. Emperor Nero started the Quinquennial Neronia, a festival with musical competitions. The Actian games, a festival honoring Apollo, also included music contests. Greeks and Romans may have performed music between meals and drinking parties during dinner.

Instruments like the cornu and tuba were used to send signals in the Roman military. Groups of musicians, called collegia, existed in ancient Rome. One group, made up of flute and lyre players, was first recorded in the second century CE. The collegium syphoniacorum performed at religious or official events. Another group, the Collegium tibicinum romanorum, played at public funerals. Musicians' collegia were highly respected in ancient Rome. These groups helped keep and improve Roman musical traditions.

Education and training

In ancient Rome, many wealthy people, especially women, learned music and singing. Singers practiced for long hours to improve their skills. Teachers of music and speech were called phonasci. These teachers helped students train their voices to be flexible. Some believed that having a soft and smooth neck helped singers avoid a harsh or broken sound. Marcus Tullius Cicero wrote that musicians practiced for years, warming up their voices while lying in bed before speaking. They would then gradually lower their voices from high to low tones. According to The Twelve Caesars, Emperor Nero trained his voice by avoiding certain foods and drinks, using vomiting and enemas, and lying on his back with a lead sheet on his chest. Quintilian believed that eating well and exercising helped singers keep their voices strong. He also said avoiding sexual activity was important for singers. Other writings describe singers doing warm-up exercises by making repeated sounds before singing. Some ancient sources suggest that "music schools" might have existed for lower-class musicians.

Cultural views

In ancient Rome, music was limited to home settings. Plutarch praised a man named Numerius Furius for singing only when it was "appropriate." Music had negative ideas in Roman society. Cornelius Nepos, a Roman historian and biographer, wrote in his biography of the 4th century BC Greek general Epaminondas that Epaminondas's musical and dancing skills were described as "trivial, or rather, contemptible." Plutarch noted that the flute's importance in Theban society was created by their leaders to "relax and calm their strong and impulsive nature when they were young boys." The ancient Romans believed music was a powerful tool that could cause strong emotions in people. Cicero and Aristides Quintilianus thought music could improve people's behavior. Quintilian called music "the most beautiful art" and said it was important for understanding ancient poets. It was widely believed in the Roman world that traditional music styles should be kept. Pliny wrote that musicians changed their art based on what people wanted. Cicero praised traditional Roman music, saying it helped make "barbaric" people more civilized. He believed musical education could help future politicians learn to listen better and find flaws in arguments. Many Roman writers, including Plato, Seneca, and Cicero, thought music could make men seem less strong. Female musicians were respected more than male musicians, as their skills could increase their attractiveness. However, if women were too skilled at music and also involved in activities like prostitution, they were seen as less respectable. Music was also considered unsuitable for married women or older women. Cicero once wrote:

— Marcus Tullius Cicero

In early Christianity and among the Late Antique church fathers, there were discussions about the meaning and importance of music.

Instruments

Roman art shows many types of musical instruments, including woodwinds, brass, percussion, and stringed instruments. Roman-style instruments were found in parts of the Empire where they did not originate, showing that music was an important part of Roman culture that spread to other regions.

The Roman tuba was a long, straight bronze trumpet with a removable, cone-shaped mouthpiece similar to the modern French horn. Examples found today are about 1.3 meters long. The instrument has a narrow shape from the mouthpiece to the bell, which flares suddenly, like the modern straight trumpet used in historical music performances. Since the tuba had no valves, it could only play a limited range of notes, which might sound familiar to people today. In the military, the tuba was used to signal commands. It also appears in art, such as mosaics from games and public events.

The cornu (Latin for "horn") was a long, curved metal wind instrument shaped like an uppercase G. It had a narrow-to-wide shape and a cone-shaped mouthpiece, similar to the French horn. It may be hard to tell apart from the buccina. The cornu was used for military signals and parades. A military officer called the cornicen translated orders into musical calls. Like the tuba, the cornu was shown in art during public events and performances.

The tibia (Greek: aulos) was usually a double instrument with two pipes, each with two reeds like a modern oboe. The pipes were not joined but held together by a mouthpiece band called a capistrum. Some sources suggest the pipes had single reeds like a clarinet instead of double reeds. The tibia produced a low, clarinet-like sound.

The askaules was a type of bagpipe. Versions of the modern flute and panpipes were also used.

Examples of these instruments include:
– A tuba player in a relief in Rome's Palazzo dei Conservatori showing Marcus Aurelius in triumph.
– A cornu at the Limesmuseum in Aalen, Germany.
– Cornicines on Trajan's Column from the 2nd century.
– A horn player on the Ludovisi sarcophagus from the 3rd century.
– A tibia player in a scene showing a sacrifice led by Marcus Aurelius in Rome's Palazzo dei Conservatori.
– Panpipes played by Pan and aulos by a maenad in the Mildenhall Treasure from the 4th century.

The lyre was borrowed from the Greeks. It had a wooden or tortoise shell body covered with skin and arms made of animal horn or wood. Strings were stretched from a crossbar to the body and tuned using sticks.

The cithara was a seven-stringed instrument similar to the modern guitar.

The lute (also called pandura or monochord) had fewer strings stretched over a solid neck or fretboard, allowing players to press the strings to create different notes. The lute was less common in the Greco-Roman world than the lyre and cithara. The medieval lute is believed to have been influenced by the Arab oud.

Examples of these instruments include:
– Cupids playing a lyre in a Roman fresco from Herculaneum.
– A woman with a cithara and sambuca in a fresco from Pompeii, 1st century (National Archaeological Museum, Naples).
– A 1st-century Roman wall painting of a harpist with an arched harp.

Mosaics show instruments that look like a mix of a bagpipe and an organ. The pipes were made to produce musical scales learned from the Greeks. It is unclear if they were played by blowing air or using mechanical bellows. The hydraulic pipe organ (hydraulis) used water pressure to supply air to the pipes. Air was pumped into a dome underwater, pushing water out and creating pressure that sent air to the pipes. The hydraulis was used in gladiator contests, arena events, and stage performances. Emperor Nero was known to play it.

Other percussion instruments included:
– A scabellum, a hinged wooden or metal device used to keep time.
– Rattles, bells, and tambourines.
– The sistrum, a ritual rattle with rings on a metal frame.
– Cymbala, small metal cymbals used in pairs.

Dance

The Salii and the Arval Brethren were ancient Roman groups of priests who performed dances during religious festivals. Dancing was used to show gratitude to the gods and was an important part of the Dionysia festival. Before battles, Roman soldiers sometimes danced to honor the god Mars. Music and dancing were also used to help make sacrifices more effective. Varro, a Roman writer, stated that dance was used in religious festivals because "no part of the body should be kept from religious experiences." Dance was a common form of entertainment in ancient Rome. Ovid wrote about people who were drunk dancing and singing in the streets during festivals like the Anna Perenna. The Romans sometimes hired dancers from conquered lands or trained slaves to perform. Female dancers called crotalisterias used bells and clappers in their performances. Another type of dance was tripudia, which involved movements with three steps. Pantomimists were popular in Roman theater. They wore cloaks, masks with closed mouths, and costumes. Plutarch described ancient Roman pantomimes as twisting, leaping, and standing still like statues. He also noted that criminals were sometimes forced to dance during festivals. Dancing was used to highlight beauty and could be sensual. Private dance schools taught dance to Roman aristocrats. In ancient Rome, improper dance was considered un-Roman. Foreign dance styles were not favored. Elagabalus faced criticism for using foreign dances. Cornelius Nepos linked dance and music to ancient Greek culture and viewed them with disapproval. Cicero said no sober person would dance unless they were "lunatic." He may not have opposed dance as entertainment but believed it was unsuitable for upper-class Romans. He might have thought dance should only be done by lower-class professional dancers. It is also possible he was only referring to erotic or foreign dancing. Scipio Aemilianus criticized dancers for showing their bodies in ways he considered inappropriate.

Discography

• Synaulia, Music of Ancient Rome, Volume 1 – Wind Instruments. Amiata Records, ARNR 1396. Florence, 1996.
• Synaulia, Music of Ancient Rome, Volume 2 – String Instruments. Amiata Records, ARNR 0302. Rome, 2002.
• Thaleia, Carmina Canere Music of Ancient Rome, Volume 1 – Tarragona, Spain, 2012.
• Ludi Scaenici, E Tempore Emergo. Rome, Italy, 2001.
• Ludi Scaenici, Festina Lente. Rome, Italy, 2011.
• Ensemble Kérylos, directed by Annie Bélis, De la pierre au son: musique de l'antiquité. K617, 1996.
• Ensemble Kérylos, directed by Annie Bélis, D'Euripide aux premiers chrétiens: musique de l'antiquité. 2016.