The serpent, or snake, is one of the oldest and most common symbols in myths and stories around the world. The word "serpent" comes from the Latin word serpens, which means a crawling animal or snake. Snakes have been part of some of the earliest rituals and traditions known to humans.

They are often seen as symbols of both good and bad.

Mircea Eliade, a historian of religions, wrote in The Myth of the Eternal Return that "the serpent symbolizes chaos, the formless and nonmanifested."

René Guénon, a traditionalist thinker, wrote in The Symbolism of the Cross that "the serpent represents the cycles of universal manifestation," "the endless nature of existence," and "a being's connection to the endless cycles of life."

Recent books about serpent symbols include The Good and Evil Serpent by James H. Charlesworth (2010) and The Serpent Symbol in Tradition by Charles William Dailey (2022).

In many cultures, the serpent is both respected and feared as a symbol of opposites, change, and the endless cycle of life. In Hindu and Buddhist traditions, serpents are called nāgas, protectors of treasures and water, and are linked to kundalini energy, a spiritual power at the base of the spine. In Mesoamerican myths, the feathered serpent Quetzalcoatl represents renewal, wisdom, and the connection between earth and sky. In African Vodun traditions, the rainbow serpent Dan is seen as a force that balances the world. In Aboriginal Australian stories, the Rainbow Serpent is a creator being central to Dreamtime myths.

In psychology, Carl Jung saw the serpent as a symbol of the unconscious mind and personal change.

The ouroboros, an alchemical symbol of a serpent eating its own tail, stands for endless cycles, the unity of opposites, and the repeating patterns of the universe.

These ideas show how the serpent has remained an important symbol in religion, mysticism, and philosophy, representing power, rebirth, and the unknown.

Evolutionary origins

Anthropologist Lynne Isbell has suggested that, as primates, humans naturally associate serpents with death because of our evolutionary past. Isbell explains that for millions of years, snakes were the main danger to primates. This is why fear of snakes is one of the most common fears worldwide and why the image of a serpent appears often in myths and stories around the world. The serpent is seen as a natural symbol of danger and death.

Additionally, psychoanalyst Joseph Lewis Henderson and ethnologist Maude Oakes have stated that the serpent also represents starting over and being born again because it is linked to death.

Using methods that compare and analyze similar stories from different cultures, French scholar Julien d'Huy studied ancient myths about serpents. He found evidence of a very old story from the Paleolithic era, called an "ophidian" myth, in which snakes are connected to rain, storms, and water sources. In this story, snakes are said to block rivers and other water sources unless humans give them sacrifices or valuable items.

Values

Historically, serpents and snakes symbolize fertility, health, or a creative life force. Snakes shed their skin through shedding, which makes them symbols of rebirth, transformation, immortality, and healing. The ouroboros is a symbol of eternity and the continuous renewal of life.

In some Abrahamic traditions, the serpent represents sexual desire. According to some interpretations of the Midrash, the serpent represents strong feelings related to love and relationships. In Hinduism, Kundalini is a dormant energy that lies coiled like a serpent.

The Hopi people of North America performed an annual snake dance to celebrate the union of Snake Youth (a Sky spirit) and Snake Girl (an Underworld spirit) and to renew the fertility of nature. During the dance, live snakes were handled, and at the end of the dance, the snakes were released into the fields to help crops grow. "The snake dance is a prayer to the spirits of the clouds, thunder, and lightning, asking for rain to help crops grow." To the Hopi, snakes symbolized the umbilical cord, connecting all humans to Mother Earth.

Serpents are often shown as strong protectors of temples and other sacred spaces. This may be because some snakes, such as rattlesnakes or cobras, stay in one place and use displays or fight instead of running away when threatened. Thus, they are natural protectors of treasures or sacred sites that cannot be easily moved.

At Angkor in Cambodia, many stone sculptures show hooded, multi-headed nāgas as guardians of temples or other places. A favorite design of Angkorean sculptors from about the 12th century CE onward was the image of the Buddha sitting in meditation, supported by the coils of a multi-headed nāga that also uses its flared hood to shield him from above. This design relates to the story of the Buddha and the serpent king Mucalinda, who came from the roots of a tree to protect the Buddha from a storm as he meditated.

The Gadsden flag of the American Revolution shows a rattlesnake coiled and ready to strike. Below the image of the snake is the phrase, "Don't tread on me." The snake symbolized the willingness of colonists to fight for their rights and homeland and also represented their separation from Europe, as it was an animal found only in America. This image was later used in the First Navy Jack of the US Navy.

Serpents are connected to venom and medicine. Snake venom is linked to chemicals in plants and fungi that can heal or help people feel more aware, even offering the possibility of life extension. Because of their knowledge of herbs and their connection to entheogenic substances, snakes were often seen as one of the wisest animals, almost like a god. Their divine aspect, combined with their habitat near the roots of plants, made them associated with the afterlife and immortality. The Greek physician Asclepius, god of medicine and healing, carried a staff with a single serpent wrapped around it, a symbol now used in modern medicine. Moses also had a replica of a serpent on a pole, called the Nehushtan, as described in Numbers 21:8.

Associated animals

In many myths, a serpent (or two) lives near or around a Tree of Life in a sacred garden. In the Genesis story from the Torah and Old Testament, the Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil and the Tree of Life are both in the Garden of Eden, along with a serpent. In Greek mythology, a serpent named Ladon wraps around a tree in the garden of the Hesperides, guarding golden apples. In Norse mythology, a dragon named Níðhöggr eats from the roots of Yggdrasil, the World Tree.

Under the Bodhi Tree, the Buddha sat in deep meditation. When a storm began, a powerful serpent named Mucalinda emerged from the ground and wrapped around the Buddha for seven days to protect him during his meditation.

In Maya mythology, the Vision Serpent was a symbol of rebirth. It was placed at the center of the world, on top of the World Tree. The Vision Serpent and the World Tree together formed a central axis that connected the spiritual world to the earthly world. Kings used rituals to create this axis in temples, opening a path to the spiritual world and gaining power.

Sometimes, the Tree of Life is shown with other symbols, like the World Tree or the World Axis. These symbols are represented by staffs used by shamans. Examples include the caduceus of Hermes, the Rod of Asclepius, the Staff of Moses, and papyrus reeds wrapped by a serpent named Wadjet, which dates back to before 3000 BCE. The oldest known image of two snakes around a rod is from Sumerian mythology, showing the god Ningizzida, who was sometimes depicted as a serpent with a human head. He was linked to healing and magic and stood at the gate of heaven with another god named Dumuzi. A famous vase in the Louvre, made for a king named Gudea, shows an inscription dedicated to Ningizzida. According to the epic of Gilgamesh, the hero retrieved a plant of life from the ocean but let it be eaten by a serpent, which became immortal.

In the 20th century, the name "Ningizzida" was connected to a spiritual practice called Reiki, where it was thought to be a fire serpent from Tibet. "Kundalini," a term from Hindu tradition, means "coiled" and refers to energy related to spiritual growth. Some believe the image of two snakes around a staff represents this energy, with the staff symbolizing the spine and the snakes showing energy channels. The seven crossings of the snakes may relate to seven energy centers called chakras.

In Ancient Egypt, serpents appeared in myths from the beginning to the end of their history. The god Ra and another god named Atum were sometimes seen as the same, with Atum linked to serpents. A two-headed serpent named Nehebkau guarded the underworld and was the son of a goddess named Renenutet. She was later associated with Wadjet, the Egyptian cobra, who was the protector of Egypt, the pharaohs, and all other gods. Wadjet was also the first known oracle and was shown as part of Egypt’s crown, wrapped around a staff and pole.

In Gnostic beliefs, the serpent was a symbol of wisdom, especially among groups called "Ophites" by others. The chthonic serpent was linked to the Mithras cult. A deadly serpent called the basilisk was said to hatch from a serpent’s egg.

In Yoruba mythology, a serpent named Oshunmare was a regenerating being. In Australia, the Rainbow Serpent is a major figure in Aboriginal myths, especially in the north. In Fiji, a serpent god named Ratumaibulu ruled the underworld and caused fruit trees to bloom. In the Northern Flinders Ranges, a serpent named Arkaroo drank a lake dry, carved valleys, and caused earthquakes.

A serpent forming a ring by biting its tail is a symbol of the universe’s totality, infinity, and the cycle of life. This image is known as the ourobouros, inspired by the Milky Way. The Ancient Egyptians linked it to Wadjet and another goddess, Hathor. In Norse mythology, the World Serpent, Jörmungandr, encircles the Earth in the ocean, biting its own tail.

In Hindu mythology, the god Vishnu is said to rest on the cosmic waters, supported by a serpent named Shesha. Shesha holds the planets on his hoods and sings praises of Vishnu. In a story from the Puranas, Shesha helped churn the ocean of milk to create the elixir of immortality. Another serpent, Vasuki, was used as a churning rope.

In pre-Columbian Central America, a god named Quetzalcoatl was sometimes shown biting his tail. His mother was the goddess Coatlicue, also known as Cihuacoatl, and his father was Mixcoatl, the "Cloud Serpent." Quetzalcoatl was linked to the Milky Way and the stars.

In West African mythology, a demigod named Aidophedo was a serpent biting its tail. In Dahomey mythology, a serpent named Dan supported the world on its coils. In Vodou, a spirit named Ayida-Weddo, also called Aida-Wedo, was a companion to Dan and associated with fertility and rainbows. When Vodou spread to Haiti, Dan became known as Danballah or Damballah-Wedo. Because of his connection to snakes, he was sometimes linked to Moses, who carried a serpent on his staff, and to Saint Patrick, who was said to have driven snakes away.

The serpent Hydra is another example of a mythological serpent.

Mythology and religion

In Africa, the main center of serpent worship was Dahomey. However, the cult of the python came from a different place and began around the early 1600s. When the Dahomeyans conquered Whydah, they met people who worshipped snakes and later adopted their beliefs, even though they had first looked down on them. In Whydah, the main center of worship, there is a temple where about fifty snakes live. People must treat a specific type of python, called danh-gbi, with respect. Killing one by accident can result in the death penalty. The danh-gbi has many wives, and until 1857, they participated in a public procession where others could not join. A python was carried around the town in a hammock, possibly as a ritual to drive away bad things.

The Ashanti people believed their rainbow god had the shape of a snake. His messenger was a small type of boa, but only certain individuals, not the whole species, were considered sacred. The Yoruba people also believed their rainbow god, Oshunmare, had a similar form.

In many parts of Africa, people see snakes as the spirits of dead relatives. Among the amaZulu and Betsileo of Madagascar, certain snake species are believed to live with specific groups of people. The Maasai, however, think each snake species is the home of a particular family in their tribe.

In ancient Mesopotamia, a god named Nirah, who was the messenger of Ištaran, was shown as a serpent on boundary stones called kudurrus. Art from Sumer and Neo-Sumerian times often shows two snakes entwined together. These images also appear on cylinder seals and amulets as late as the 13th century BCE. A horned viper, known as Cerastes cerastes, appears on Kassite and Neo-Assyrian boundary stones and is described in Assyrian texts as a magical protector. A dragon-like creature with a snake body, lion legs, and bird legs appears in Mesopotamian art from the Akkadian period until the Hellenistic era. This creature, called mušḫuššu in Akkadian, meaning "furious serpent," was used as a symbol for gods and as a protective emblem. It was originally the companion of the underworld god Ninazu but later became the companion of the Hurrian storm god Tishpak, as well as Ninazu’s son Ningishzida, the Babylonian god Marduk, the scribal god Nabu, and the Assyrian god Ashur.

Snake worship was common in Canaanite religion during the Bronze Age. Archaeologists found serpent-related objects in Bronze Age layers at several pre-Israelite cities in Canaan, including two at Megiddo, one at Gezer, one in the innermost part of the Area H temple at Hazor, and two at Shechem.

In nearby regions, serpent-related objects also appeared in other cultures. A late Bronze Age Hittite shrine in northern Syria had a bronze statue of a god holding a serpent and a staff. In 6th-century Babylon, two bronze serpents stood at the entrances of the temple of Esagila. During the Babylonian New Year festival, a priest ordered a woodworker, metalworker, and goldsmith to create two images, one of which would hold a cedar snake in its left hand and raise its right hand toward the god Nabu. At the site of Tepe Gawra, seventeen bronze snakes from the Early Bronze Age were found.

Many snake images have been discovered in the United Arab Emirates (UAE), including pottery, bronze items, and gold artwork. The Bronze Age and Iron Age site of Saruq Al Hadid has produced the most snake-related objects, though similar symbols have been found at other sites like Rumailah, Bithnah, and Masafi. Most snake depictions are similar, with a consistent dotted pattern.

Although archaeologists believe the widespread snake images in the UAE may have religious significance, this is still a theory.

In the Hebrew Bible, the serpent in the Garden of Eden tricked Eve by promising she would become like God, even though God had warned her that eating the fruit would lead to death.

In the story of Moses, his staff turned into a snake and then back into a staff (Exodus 4:2–4). The Book of Numbers 21:6–9 describes the creation of an ancient copper serpent called Nehushtan, linked to Moses. This copper snake was placed on a pole and used to heal people bitten by snakes. The text says, "Moses made a snake of copper and put it on a pole. If a snake had bitten a man, and he looked at the copper snake, he would live."

When King Hezekiah became ruler of Judah in the late 8th century BCE, he destroyed idols and the copper snake made by Moses, calling it Nehushtan. He did this because the Israelites had burned incense to it as an idol.

In the Gospel of John 3:14–15, Jesus compared his crucifixion to Moses raising the copper snake in the desert, using it as a symbol of salvation. He said, "As Moses lifted up the serpent in the wilderness, so must the Son of Man be lifted up, that whoever believes in Him may have eternal life."

Christian tradition also describes the serpent in the Garden of Eden as Satan, who tempted Eve to eat the fruit from the Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil. Eve and Adam were punished by YHWH for disobeying God’s command.

Snake imagery also appears when the Israelites criticized Moses, and God sent poisonous snakes to bite them. When they repented, Moses prayed for them, and God told him to make a bronze snake and put it on a pole. Anyone bitten could look at it and be healed.

Snakes are a common symbol in Islamic thought, appearing in religious texts and art. They are often seen as symbols of evil and punishment. Snakes are also viewed as figures of wisdom in some stories. Djinn, supernatural beings, are sometimes shown as snakes in folklore. In Arabian mythology, the "Arabhar" or "Arab snake" is said to live near the Arabian Sea and can fly.

In Islamic tradition, the serpent follows earlier Abrahamic myths as a symbol of the temptation of wisdom. This is shown in stories like the one by Rumi about a snake-catcher and a serpent, where the serpent represents the human soul’s desires. Another story from Arabian folklore describes the giant serpent Falak, which lives below the fish Bahamut and is mentioned in One Thousand and One Nights as a dangerous creature. Falak only fears God’s power, which prevents it from destroying the world.

In ancient Iran, snakes were considered sacred and powerful. They were linked to fertility, water, and wealth and were often shown with fertility goddesses in art from the 4th to 1st millennia BCE. This is seen in places like Tall-i Bakun, Chogha Mish, Tepe Sialk, Jiroft culture, Shahr-e Sukhteh, Shahdad,

Folklore

In folk and fairy tale traditions around the world, snakes and serpents appear as characters in many stories. They may be main characters in animal fables or magic tales (Märchen), or they may be the ones who give the main character a special power or teach them something important.

According to the Aarne-Thompson-Uther Index, serpents appear in these roles in the following story types:

• ATU 155, "The Ungrateful Animal (Serpent) Returned to Captivity": A farmer saves an animal (a snake) from a trap (a pit). The animal wants to bite the farmer who saved it, but the farmer tries to avoid this. He asks other animals for help, including a trickster animal like a fox or jackal. The trickster acts innocent and asks the snake to return to the pit to show what is happening. The farmer traps the snake again. Example: The Tiger, the Brahmin and the Jackal, an Indian fable.

• ATU 411, "The King and the Lamia (The Snake-Wife)": A man marries a woman with a mysterious background. A holy person (like a monk or cleric) discovers the woman is actually a serpent. This type includes The Legend of the White Snake (a Chinese legend) and Mélusine, a French medieval legend.

• ATU 425, "The Search for the Lost Husband," and subtypes: A girl is promised to an animal bridegroom (a snake, dragon, or serpent) who visits her at night in human form. The girl breaks a rule, and her enchanted husband disappears. She must search for him. Examples: The Green Serpent (a French fairy tale), The Snake Prince (an Indian fairy tale), The Enchanted Snake (an Italian fairy tale), and The Serpent Prince (a Hungarian folktale).

• ATU 425M, "The Snake as Bridegroom": A girl leaves her clothes near a lake. A snake hides them and demands she marry it to get them back. She agrees. Later, the snake takes her to its underwater or underground palace. This story is found mainly in the Baltic region. Example: Egle the Queen of Serpents, a Lithuanian fairy tale.

• ATU 433B, "King Lindworm": A queen gives birth to a boy who is born as a snake. Years later, he wants to marry but either eats his brides or cannot find a wife who accepts his form. A brave woman helps him by wearing many layers of clothing to match his snake-like skin. Examples: King Lindworm (a Danish fairy tale) and The Dragon-Prince and the Stepmother (a Turkish fairy tale).

• ATU 485, "Borma Jarizhka" or "The City of Babylon": A king sends a brave knight to retrieve three royal symbols (a robe, a crown, and a scepter) from a city surrounded by snakes and ruled by a princess with snake-like traits.

• ATU 560, "The Magic Ring": A poor man saves or buys four animals: a cat, a dog, a mouse, and a snake. The snake is the son of the king of serpents and takes the man to its father’s court to give him a magical object (like a ring or stone). Example: The Enchanted Watch, a French fairy tale.

• ATU 612, "The Three Snake-Leaves": A man kills a snake. The snake’s mate brings three magical leaves to bring it back to life. This inspires the man to find a similar plant to revive his dead wife.

• ATU 672, "The Serpent's Crown": A snake removes its crown to bathe in a lake. A human steals the crown and learns it can grant special powers, like the ability to speak animal languages.

• ATU 673, "The White Serpent's Flesh": A character learns to speak animal languages by eating the flesh of a white serpent. Example: The White Snake, a German fairy tale by the Brothers Grimm.

Flags and heraldry

Snakes appear on the flags or emblems of many groups.

• The Flag of Mexico, based on an Aztec symbol for Tenochtitlan, shows an eagle sitting on a cactus while eating a snake.
• The arms of the House of Visconti, who ruled the Duchy of Milan.

In 1754 and again during the American Revolution, Benjamin Franklin published the Join, or Die cartoon in The Pennsylvania Gazette to encourage colonial unity. The cartoon shows a snake cut into eight pieces, each representing one or more of the Thirteen Colonies. It was based on a belief that if a snake was cut into pieces and the pieces were put together before sunset, the snake would return to life.

After the publication of Join, or Die, the rattlesnake became a symbol of the Thirteen Colonies. Franklin and other colonists saw the rattlesnake as a symbol of independence and vigilance. Several flags from the American Revolution include images of rattlesnakes. Two well-known flags with rattlesnake imagery are the Gadsden flag and the First Navy Jack. The United States War Office, and later the Department of War and Department of the Army, include a rattlesnake in their emblems.

• Join, or Die, a 1754 political cartoon by Benjamin Franklin.
• A rattlesnake appears on the Gadsden flag.
• A rattlesnake appears on the First Navy Jack of the United States.
• The Department of the Army Emblem contains a rattlesnake with the motto "this we'll defend."

Modern symbolism

Snakes wrapped around the staffs of Hermes (called the caduceus) and Asclepius. On Hermes' staff, one snake was around the rough staff. On Hermes' caduceus, the snakes were not only placed for balance but were also shown as opposites. (This image is similar to the phurba.) Wings at the top of the staff showed it belonged to Hermes, the Roman god Mercury, who was known for magic, diplomacy, and communication, as well as for protecting merchants and thieves. However, Hermes was also seen as a psychopomp, guiding souls to the afterlife. This role is similar to the Sumerian god Ningizzida, who was also represented with entwined snakes.

In Late Antiquity, as alchemy developed, Mercury was seen as the protector of alchemy and secret knowledge. Medicine and chemistry linked Hermes' rod with Asclepius' staff, which had a single snake. Over time, the modern medical symbol often became Mercury's wand, even though it should be Asclepius' staff. Another version used in alchemy shows a snake being crucified, known as Nicolas Flamel's caduceus. Art historian Walter J. Friedlander, in The Golden Wand of Medicine: A History of the Caduceus Symbol in Medicine (1992), studied many examples of the caduceus and Asclepius' staff. He found that professional groups were more likely to use Asclepius' staff, while commercial organizations in medicine often used the caduceus.

In Christian times, snakes became symbols of evil. They were used in propaganda to represent Jews and the dangers of drugs in films like Narcotic and Narcotics: Pit of Despair. The Gadsden flag, used during the American Revolution, still shows a snake and represents libertarian ideas today.

• Imperial Japan was shown as an evil snake in a WWII propaganda poster.

Car brands like AC Cobra, Ford Mustang Shelby, Zarooq Motors, Dodge Viper, and Alfa Romeo use snakes on their logos.